Friday, February 4, 2011

film freshboys



film freshboys

1.the hunk: dua atlet lari mandi bersama
2.ordinary: seorg remaja masturbasi dg video porn dr hp
3. the neat: seorg clean freak jd model nude utk kelas menggambar
4. demo: dua pendemo ml setelah capek berdemo
5. genius geek: seorg kutubuku masturbasi d perpus

mp: i dont understand....

film darang - jeff luna, ica tantaco






film darang - jeff luna, ica tantaco

seorg janda menerima seorg pria kos d tmptnya. si pria mirip dg suaminya yg dulu hilang d hutan. dg berbagai upaya akhirnya s janda mendptkan si pria.
sementara si janda menerima sepasang muda-mudi hidup d tmptnya. diam2 s muda selingkuh dg tmn lelakinya

mp: ga da subtitelnya....hiks...

film standing room only




film standing room only

d sb biskop xxx sonny beredar sbg gigolo. namun ketenaranya hrs padam ketika roldan dtg. ketika roldan d bunuh salah satu pelangganya, oscar yg selama ini sbg ob menggantikannya sbg gigolo. ketika oscar jatuh cinta pd sonny, ob yg baru shay menggantikannya sbg gigolo

mp: aku mau jd pelacur

film versus




film versus - paolo rivero, paolo serrano

seorg pria satu kos dg seorg brondong. mrk menjalin hub. si pria marah ketika memergoki si brondong selingkuh. s pria memutuskan utk pindah kos

mp: kok kosku ga da yg bikin affair?...

film pinoy gay kamasutra - jay mendoza, jeff luna, andrew subisol, richard subirano, red diaz, axel bo, wilson dela paz





film pinoy gay kamasutra - jay mendoza, jeff luna, andrew subisol, richard subirano, red diaz, axel bo, wilson dela paz

here some styles in written:
foreplay: hugging, touching, kissing
anal: underdog, dog, certwheel
fliside: double m, over the top
angles: right angle, angle bisector
alphabet: h l g
felatio: inverted hammer, the worship, the link, the hoe

mp: i dont hear the orally-mentioned styles

film mga lalake sa dilim





film mga lalake sa dilim

seorg pemuda berprofesi sbg gigolo. dia bertemu pelanggan di halte bus. ketika mrk main di tmpt umum mrk kepergok satpam. si gigolo pergi. si pelanggan jd simpanan s satpam.
sementara seorg pria berprofesi sbg tukang pijat dan stripper. pul dr kerja dia bertemu seorg pemuda. si pria memberi layanan gratis krn si pemuda cakep. ketika si stripper dan si gigolo bertemu, mrk saling jatuh cinta

mp: ngarang abizzzz

film boring love






film boring love

seorg pria ditinggal ceweknya krn si cewe dpt cwo laen. namun bbrp saat kmd si cewek kembali krn diputusin selingkuhannya. dg bodohnya s cwo menerimanya kembali.
sementara d tmpt kerja, si pria dikejar2 teman gaynya. s pria marah ketika temanya berkunjung k rmh nya. kmd temanya menghilang. bosnya menyuruh s pria mencari temanya. si pria menemukan temanya babak belur. si pria menghibur temnya dg mabuk bersama. ktika pagi harinya si pria menemukan dirinya telanjang, si pria marah pd temanya. namun semuanya hanya salah paham. mrk kembali bershabat.
sementara d rmh si cewek dikunjungi selingkuhanya yg memaksa si cewek utk ikut bersamnya. temanya dtg dan menyelamatkan si cewek.
suatu hari temanya nginep d rmh si pria. si cewek salah paham ketika menemukan mrk sekasur.
si ce pdkt pd temanya namun ditolak. si pria berusaha membantu menyatukan ceweknya dg si temanya. temanya marah. si pria berusaha minta maaf. temanya mengundurkan diri dan menghilang. si cewek menyadari si pria lbh mencintai temanya dan memutuskan pergi. si pria berusaha mencari temanya d desa namun gagal. dia berusaha mencari d kota dan menemukanya d tmpt mrk biasa hang out.

mp: ga da subtitelnya...hiks

film senior at reunion




film senior at reunion

tiga atlet gym yg saling bermesraan d kamar mandi dan sauna

mp: hmmmm

film junior






film junior

tiga atlet renang yg saling bermesraan d kolam renang

mp: mau....

film chub chaser



film chub chaser

seorg pemuda gendut berusaha mencari cinta. dg bertemu face to face dia byk dpt penolakan. dia berusaha lewat internet pun byk penolakan. suatu kali dia hampir dihajar dr pria dr net. teman2 kosnya menyelamatkannya. teman2 kosnya menerima dia apa adanya. salah satu teman kosnya menerimanya lbh dr teman

mp: knp aku ga beruntung spt dia?.

kamis 3 2 11




kamis 3 2 11

pg ketemuan ma hans
thx u lord

k bulik
k demak
ngantar d dian k kyai busro
k masjid demak
thx u lord

k tlogosaro
bl tahu aci
k bulik
ngantar d dian pul
nunut makan
thx u lord

rabu 2 2 11








rabu 2 2 11



bangun kesiangan
help me lord

k ikip
ngumpulin nilai
thx u lord

k starbusk
w putu dwi sari
thx u lord

k boja ngajar
thx u lord

mlm k burjo
k warnet
thx u lord

ketombe3


Archive for the ‘Ketombe’

Nanas

Buah ini banyak mengandung vitamin A dan C sebagai antioksidan. Juga mengandung kalsium, fosfor, magnesium, besi, natrium, kalium, dekstrosa, sukrosa, dan enzim bromelain.
Bromelain berkhasiat sebagai antiradang, membantu melunakkan makanan di lambung, serta menghambat pertumbuhan sel kanker. Kandungan seratnya dapat mempermudah buang air besar pada penderita sembelit.

Beberapa khasiat buah nanas yang telah masak:

* bersifat dingin,
* dapat mengurangi keluarnya asam lambung yang berlebihan,
* membantu pencernaan makanan di lambung,
* antiradang,
* peluruh kencing (diuretik),
* membersihkan jaringan kulit yang mati,
* mengganggu pertumbuhan sel kanker,
* menghambat penggumpalan trombosit.

Beberapa penyakit yang dapat disembuhkan dengan buah nanas:

1. Air perasan (Jus) Nanas: Cacingan, radang tenggorokan, Beri-beri, menurunkan berat badan, masalah pencernaan
2. Daun Nanas (cuci bersih, ditumbuk halus, balurkan pada yang sakit): Untuk luka bakar, gatal dan bisul
3. Ketombe: Sediakan 1/4 buah nanas masak. Kupas kulitnya, lalu parut, peras, dan saring. Tambahkan air perasan 1 buah jeruk nipis dan aduk sampai rata. Gunakan ramuan ini untuk menggosok kulit kepala yang berketombe. Lakukan malam sebelum tidur. Keesokan paginya rambut dikeramas. Lakukan 2-3 kali dalam seminggu.
4. Peradangan kulit: sediakan 1/2 buah nanas yang telah masak. Kupas kulitnya, lalu parut. Hasil parutannya dipakai untuk menggosok kulit yang bersisik dan mengelupas. Lakukan sekali sehari, malam sebelum tidur. Keesokan paginya baru dicuci bersih. Lakukan setiap hari.
5. Sembelit: minum air perasan dari 3 buah nanas, namun pilihlah buah yang belum matang benar dan agak sedikit asam.

Efek Samping:

* Nanas muda berpotensi sebagai abortivum atau sejenis obat yang dapat menggugurkan kandungan. Karena itu, nanas dapat digunakan untuk melancarkan terlambat haid. Karena itu, perempuan hamil dilarang mengkonsumsi nanas muda.

* memicu rematik. Di dalam saluran cerna, buah nanas terfermentasi menjadi alkohol. Ini bisa memicu kekambuhan rematik gout. Penderita rematik dan radang sendi dianjurkan untuk membatasi konsumsi nanas.

* meningkatkan gula darah. Buah nanas masak mengandung kadar gula yang cukup tinggi. Jadi, bagi penderita diabetes, sebaiknya tidak mengonsumsi nanas secara berlebihan.

* menimbulkan rasa gatal. Terkadang sehabis makan nanas segar, mulut dan lidah terasa gatal. Untuk menghindarinya, sebelum dimakan, rendamlah potongan buah nanas dengan air garam. Sederhana bukan?

ketombe2


Ketombe yang tak juga hilang meski sudah diatasi dengan sampo antiketombe bisa jadi karena infeksi jamur. Bagaimana mengatasinya?

Munculnya ketombe tentu sangat mengganggu. Betapa tidak, adanya ketombe membuat rambut jadi kotor, sehingga mengganggu penampilan karena tidak sedap dipandang. Ketombe merupakan salah satu menafestasi dan dermatitis seboroik (penyakit kulit dengan keradangan di area yang paling banyak terdapat kelenjar minyak) yang paling ringan.

Meski begitu, ketombe pada dasarnya adalah sesuatu yang normal, asalkan jumlahnya tidak banyak dan tidak menimbulkan rasa gatal yang berlebihan. Sebab, ketombe pada dasarnya adalah sel-sel kulit mati yang normal terkelupas dalam pergantian kulit setiap bulan, untuk diganti oleh sel-sel baru yang lebih sehat.

Namun, adanya infeksi jamur pada kulit kepala menyebabkan pergantian yang normalnya satu bulan sekali, jadi lebih cepat. Akibatnya terjadi penumpukan sel-sel rambut yang terkelupas, atau yang sering disebut ketombe.

GEJALA
Infeksi jemur pada kulit kepala, atau dalam istilah kedokteran disebut tinea kapitis, dapat menyerang semua golongan usia, mulai anak-anak sampai orangtua. Infeksi tersebut dapat menyerang kepala, bulu mata dan alis. Untuk mengetahui ketombe disebabkan oleh infeksi jamur bukanlah hal mudah. Sebab, gejalanya sangat mirip dengan ketombe yang disebabkan oleh faktor lain.

Untuk mengetahui ketombe disebabkan oleh infeksi jamur bukanlah hal mudah. Sebab, gejalanya sangat mirip dengan ketombe yang disebabkan oleh faktor lain. Namun, ada beberapa hal yang bisa dijadikan gejala atau tanda bahwa ketombe disebabkan oleh infeksi jamur. Di antaranya adalah:
? Rambut mudah patah atau rapuh.
? Warna rambut jadi abu-abu, kusam dan tidak berkilau disertai rasa gatal yang mengganggu.
? Muncul lapisan bersisik di kulit kepala disertai reaksi radang dan gatal ringan.
? Ada infeksi jamur di tempat lain dari tubuh.
? Ada kontal dengan orang yang diketahui menderita infeksi jamur. Sebab, infeksi jamur sangat mudah ditularkan dari satu orang ke orang lain.

Penularan dapat terjadi melalui benda yang mengalami kontak dengan kulit kepala yang terinfeksi jamur. Karena itu, hindari penggunaan alat-alat seperti sisir, topi, handuk secara bersama-sama. Selain itu, bila memelihara hewan, perhatikan betul kebersihannya agar tidak menjadi sumber penularan. Sebab, penyebab infeksi juga dapat hidup pada bulu-bulu hewan peliharaan seperti anjing dan kucing.

PENANGANAN
Bila sudah ada tanda-tanda ketombe, sebaiknya segera ditangani. Sebab, infeksi yang berat dapat menyebabkan kebotakan permanent, yang tentunya sangat mengganggu kaum perempuan. Penanganan pada ketombe pada prinsipnya adalah dengan menurunkan jumlah produksi lemak dan menormalkan jumlah flora normal di kulit kepala. Caranya dengan:
? Mencuci rambut setiap hari dengan sampo antiketombe yang mengandung selenium sulfide atau zinc pyrithion.
? Memberikan obat antijamur, yang dapat berupa obat minum maupun obat topical (dioleskan langsung pada tempat terkena). Biasanya lama pengobatan berkisar 6-12 minggu. Berkonsultasilah dengan dokter anda agar dapat diberikan obat dengan dosis dan cara pemakaian yang tepat.
? Kurangi makanan tinggi lemak.
? Membatasi konsumsi makan dan minuman yang memicu pertumbuhan jamur kulit. Misalnya, minuman beralkohol.
? Mengonsumsi makanan yang mengandung zinc untuk memelihara aktivitas kelenjar minyak dan kekebelan tubuh.
? Hindari menggaruk kulit kepala agar tidak lecet dan menimbulkan infeksi sekunder.

Faktor Lain Penyebab Ketombe
Selain karena infeksi jamur, ada banyak faktor lain yang bisa menyebabkan munculnya ketombe. Berikut ini di antaranya:
? Peningkatan Produksi Minyak
Meningkatnya produksi minyak di kulit kepala dapat disebabkan oleh makanan tinggi lemak, stres, iklim, maupun obat-obatan yang akan meningkatkan aktivitas kelenjar lemak.
? Peningkatan Flora Normal
Meningkatnya flora normal di kulit kepala dapat disebabkan oleh kesehatan kulit kepala yang kurang, daya tahan tubuh rendah, pemakaian obat-obatan tertentu yang menurunkan system kekebalan tubuh.
Flora normal yang menyebabkan ketombe adalah Pityrosporum ovale yang dapat menguraikan sebum, yaitu senyawa minyak minyak yang diproduksi kelenjar lemak kulit, menjadi senyawa yang mengiritasi kulit kepala. Akibatnya timbullah ketombe sebagai akibat iritasi tersebut.
? Pemakaian Kosmetik Tertentu
Pemakaian kosmetik tertentu yang bersifat iritatif juga dapat menyebabkan munculnya ketombe.

Ketombe Bisa Terjadi Di Alis
Ketombe tidak hanya menyerang kulit kepala. Tapi, juga alis. Itu ditandai dengan munculnya sisik-sisik putih pada alis dan alis jadi tidak menyambung. Ada beberapa penyebab ketombe pada alis, yang masing-masing butuh penanganan berbeda. Berikut ini adalah :
? Kulit Kering
Ketombe pada alis yang disebabkan oleh kulit kering bisa ditangani dengan menggosoknya perlahan secara memutar dengan telunjuk saat mencuci muka. Setelah itu, keringkan wajah dan berikan pelembab pada alis.
? Dermatitis Seboroik
Ketombe pada alis yang disebabkan dermatitisseboroik dapat ditangani dengan menjaga kebersihan daerah yang terkena,
? Psoriasis
Ketombe pada alis yang disebabkan psoriasis dapat ditangani dengan menghilangkan faktor-faktor pencetus timbulnya psoriasis dan memakai obat secara teratur baik salep maupun obat minum.

ketombe1


Ketombe yang tak juga hilang meski sudah diatasi dengan sampo antiketombe bisa jadi karena infeksi jamur. Bagaimana mengatasinya?

Munculnya ketombe tentu sangat mengganggu. Betapa tidak, adanya ketombe membuat rambut jadi kotor, sehingga mengganggu penampilan karena tidak sedap dipandang. Ketombe merupakan salah satu menafestasi dan dermatitis seboroik (penyakit kulit dengan keradangan di area yang paling banyak terdapat kelenjar minyak) yang paling ringan.

Meski begitu, ketombe pada dasarnya adalah sesuatu yang normal, asalkan jumlahnya tidak banyak dan tidak menimbulkan rasa gatal yang berlebihan. Sebab, ketombe pada dasarnya adalah sel-sel kulit mati yang normal terkelupas dalam pergantian kulit setiap bulan, untuk diganti oleh sel-sel baru yang lebih sehat.

Namun, adanya infeksi jamur pada kulit kepala menyebabkan pergantian yang normalnya satu bulan sekali, jadi lebih cepat. Akibatnya terjadi penumpukan sel-sel rambut yang terkelupas, atau yang sering disebut ketombe.

GEJALA
Infeksi jemur pada kulit kepala, atau dalam istilah kedokteran disebut tinea kapitis, dapat menyerang semua golongan usia, mulai anak-anak sampai orangtua. Infeksi tersebut dapat menyerang kepala, bulu mata dan alis. Untuk mengetahui ketombe disebabkan oleh infeksi jamur bukanlah hal mudah. Sebab, gejalanya sangat mirip dengan ketombe yang disebabkan oleh faktor lain.

Untuk mengetahui ketombe disebabkan oleh infeksi jamur bukanlah hal mudah. Sebab, gejalanya sangat mirip dengan ketombe yang disebabkan oleh faktor lain. Namun, ada beberapa hal yang bisa dijadikan gejala atau tanda bahwa ketombe disebabkan oleh infeksi jamur. Di antaranya adalah:
? Rambut mudah patah atau rapuh.
? Warna rambut jadi abu-abu, kusam dan tidak berkilau disertai rasa gatal yang mengganggu.
? Muncul lapisan bersisik di kulit kepala disertai reaksi radang dan gatal ringan.
? Ada infeksi jamur di tempat lain dari tubuh.
? Ada kontal dengan orang yang diketahui menderita infeksi jamur. Sebab, infeksi jamur sangat mudah ditularkan dari satu orang ke orang lain.

Penularan dapat terjadi melalui benda yang mengalami kontak dengan kulit kepala yang terinfeksi jamur. Karena itu, hindari penggunaan alat-alat seperti sisir, topi, handuk secara bersama-sama. Selain itu, bila memelihara hewan, perhatikan betul kebersihannya agar tidak menjadi sumber penularan. Sebab, penyebab infeksi juga dapat hidup pada bulu-bulu hewan peliharaan seperti anjing dan kucing.

PENANGANAN
Bila sudah ada tanda-tanda ketombe, sebaiknya segera ditangani. Sebab, infeksi yang berat dapat menyebabkan kebotakan permanent, yang tentunya sangat mengganggu kaum perempuan. Penanganan pada ketombe pada prinsipnya adalah dengan menurunkan jumlah produksi lemak dan menormalkan jumlah flora normal di kulit kepala. Caranya dengan:
? Mencuci rambut setiap hari dengan sampo antiketombe yang mengandung selenium sulfide atau zinc pyrithion.
? Memberikan obat antijamur, yang dapat berupa obat minum maupun obat topical (dioleskan langsung pada tempat terkena). Biasanya lama pengobatan berkisar 6-12 minggu. Berkonsultasilah dengan dokter anda agar dapat diberikan obat dengan dosis dan cara pemakaian yang tepat.
? Kurangi makanan tinggi lemak.
? Membatasi konsumsi makan dan minuman yang memicu pertumbuhan jamur kulit. Misalnya, minuman beralkohol.
? Mengonsumsi makanan yang mengandung zinc untuk memelihara aktivitas kelenjar minyak dan kekebelan tubuh.
? Hindari menggaruk kulit kepala agar tidak lecet dan menimbulkan infeksi sekunder.

Faktor Lain Penyebab Ketombe
Selain karena infeksi jamur, ada banyak faktor lain yang bisa menyebabkan munculnya ketombe. Berikut ini di antaranya:
? Peningkatan Produksi Minyak
Meningkatnya produksi minyak di kulit kepala dapat disebabkan oleh makanan tinggi lemak, stres, iklim, maupun obat-obatan yang akan meningkatkan aktivitas kelenjar lemak.
? Peningkatan Flora Normal
Meningkatnya flora normal di kulit kepala dapat disebabkan oleh kesehatan kulit kepala yang kurang, daya tahan tubuh rendah, pemakaian obat-obatan tertentu yang menurunkan system kekebalan tubuh.
Flora normal yang menyebabkan ketombe adalah Pityrosporum ovale yang dapat menguraikan sebum, yaitu senyawa minyak minyak yang diproduksi kelenjar lemak kulit, menjadi senyawa yang mengiritasi kulit kepala. Akibatnya timbullah ketombe sebagai akibat iritasi tersebut.
? Pemakaian Kosmetik Tertentu
Pemakaian kosmetik tertentu yang bersifat iritatif juga dapat menyebabkan munculnya ketombe.

Ketombe Bisa Terjadi Di Alis
Ketombe tidak hanya menyerang kulit kepala. Tapi, juga alis. Itu ditandai dengan munculnya sisik-sisik putih pada alis dan alis jadi tidak menyambung. Ada beberapa penyebab ketombe pada alis, yang masing-masing butuh penanganan berbeda. Berikut ini adalah :
? Kulit Kering
Ketombe pada alis yang disebabkan oleh kulit kering bisa ditangani dengan menggosoknya perlahan secara memutar dengan telunjuk saat mencuci muka. Setelah itu, keringkan wajah dan berikan pelembab pada alis.
? Dermatitis Seboroik
Ketombe pada alis yang disebabkan dermatitisseboroik dapat ditangani dengan menjaga kebersihan daerah yang terkena,
? Psoriasis
Ketombe pada alis yang disebabkan psoriasis dapat ditangani dengan menghilangkan faktor-faktor pencetus timbulnya psoriasis dan memakai obat secara teratur baik salep maupun obat minum.

garis waktu sejarah jerman


Garis waktu sejarah Jerman
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Sejarah Jerman
Coat of arms featuring a large black eagle with wings spread and beak open. The eagle is black, with red talons and beak, and is over a gold background.
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Garis sejarah Jerman dipaparkan di halaman ini. Untuk membaca latar belakang peristiwa-peristiwa ini, silakan melihat Sejarah Jerman.

Daftar ini belum lengkap. Siapapun diundang untuk melengkapi daftar ini
Daftar isi
[sembunyikan]

* 1 1000 SM–1 SM
* 2 1 M–800 M
* 3 800–1000
* 4 1000–1500
* 5 1600-an
* 6 1700-an
* 7 1800-an
* 8 1900-an
* 9 2000

[sunting] 1000 SM–1 SM

* 1000 SM - 500 SM, Suku-suku Jermanik muncul di Jerman utara, lihat Zaman Perunggu Utara dan Zaman Besi Pra-Romawi
* 600 - 300 SM (kurang lebih) suku Jermanik Timur berhijrah dari Skandinavia menuju daerah antara sungai Oder dan Wisla
* 113 SM - 439 M Perang Jermanik antara suku Jermanik dan bangsa Romawi
* 109 SM Konfederasi suku Cimbri, Teutoni dan Helvetii dibentuk
* 57 SM Perang Gallia Julius Caesar; Caesar menginvasi daerah yang lalu menjadi Germania Inferior
* 53 SM Suku-suku Eburones, Nervii, Menapii dan Morinii memberontak tetapi ditumpas oleh Julius Caesar.
* 50 SM (kurang lebih) Suku Ingvaeones menjadi suku Frisia, suku Saksen, suku Jutlandia dan suku Anglia
* 8 SM Marcomanni dan Quadi mengusir kaum Boii dari Bohemia
* 10 SM (kurang lebih) pembedaan muncul antara suku-suku Teutonik lokal (Alamanni, Hermunduri, Marcomanni, Quadi, Suebi) di daerah yang sebelumnya dihuni oleh suku Irminones
* 8 Konfederasi suku Marcomanni, Lugier, Semnones, Lombardia dan lain-lain

[sunting] 1 M–800 M
Menara penjagaan Limes yang telah direkonstruksi di dekat Rheinbrohl, Jerman.

* 9 M Pertempuran Hutan Teutoburg menghasilkan perbatasan antara bangsa Romawai dan Jermanik.
o Masa Upper Germanic Limes mulai
* 16 M Pertempuran Sungai Weser (Pertempuran Minden) antara bangsa Romawi (Germanicus) dan Arminius, kepala suku Cherusci
* 68 Tahun Empat Kaisar
* 69 Pemberontakan Batavia oleh suku Batavia yang dipimpin oleh Civilis melawan Kekaisaran Romawi
* 90 Germania Superior dan Germania Inferior didirikan sebagai provinsi Romawi (Germania)
* 268 Pertempuran Danau Benacus antara suku Alamanni dan Claudius II
o Pertempuran Naissus antara suku Gothik dan Gallienus
* 300 - 900 (kurang lebih) Völkerwanderung
* 496 Pertempuran Tolbiac antara suku Frankia dan Alamanni
* 530 Paus Bonifasius II ditahbiskan
* abad ke-5 sampai ke-9 Pergeseran bunyi Jerman Hulu membedakan bahasa Jermanik Hulu dari Bahasa Jermanik Barat lainnya
* 715 Santo Bonifasius memulai karya misionarisnya

[sunting] 800–1000
Charlemagne, oleh Albrecht Dürer

* 800 Charlemagne dinobatkan sebagai Imperator Romanorum (Kaisar bangsa Romawi); Kekaisaran Romawi Suci dibentuk
* 804 suku Saksen akhirnya ditaklukkan oleh Charlemagne
* 843 Perjanjian Verdun
* 870 Perjanjian Mersen membagi Kekaisaran Carolingian
* 955 Otto I, Kaisar Romawi Suci mengalahkan bangsa Hongaria pada Pertempuran Lechfeld
* 996 Paus Gregorius V ditahbiskan

[sunting] 1000–1500

* Abad ke-11 – abad ke-13 Perang Salib
* 1046 Paus Clement II ditahbiskan
* 1048 Paus Damasus II ditahbiskan
* 1049 Paus Leo IX ditahbiskan
* 1055 Paus Victor II ditahbiskan
* 1057 Paus Stefanus IX ditahbiskan
* 1075 awal dari Kontroversi Investiture
* 1096 Perang Salib Jerman, 1096
* 1098 Hildegard dari Bingen lahir
* Abad ke-12th – abad ke-14 penyanyi Minnesänger
* 1122 Konkordat Worms
* 1147 – abad ke-16 Perang Salib Utara (Perang Salib Baltik) melawan rakyat Eropa Timur Laut sekitar Laut Baltik
* 1190 Ksatria Teutonik dibentuk setelah Perang Salib III
* 1190 atau 1200 Nibelungenlieddigubah
* 1214 Pertempuran Bouvines
* abad ke-14 sampai 16 penyair liris Meistersinger
* 1356 Lembu Emas dari tahun 1356
Martin Luther oleh Lucas Cranach yang Tua
o Liga Hansa diresmikan secara resmi
* 1370 Perjanjian Stralsund mengakhiri perang antara Liga Hansa dan Denmark
* 1392 Victual Bersaudara menyewa para bangsawan Mecklenburg untuk memerangi Denmark
* 1410 Pertempuran Grunwald
* 1455 Alkitab Gutenberg pertama kali dicetak oleh Johann Gutenberg
* 1471 Albrecht Dürer lahir
* 1495 Reformasi Kekaisaran; Reichskammergericht dibentuk
* 1517 Martin Luther menulis 95 Dalilnya
* 1521 Diocese Worms merujuk Martin Luther dan efeknya terhadap Reformasi Protestan
* 1522 Paus Adrianus VI ditahbiskan
* 1524 - 1526 Perang Tani
* 1555 Perdamaian Augsburg

[sunting] 1600-an
Lukisan yang menggambarkan Pertempuran Wina karya Juliusz Kossak

* 1683 Kerajaan Ottoman Turki yang mengancam Kekaisaran Romawi Suci dikalahkan di dekat Wina oleh Raja Jan Sobieski dari Polandia

[sunting] 1700-an

* 1772-1795 Prusia mengambil bagian pada Pembagian Polandia. Hal ini menyebabkan perjuangan bangsa Polandia selama ratusan tahun melawan pendudukan Jerman.

[sunting] 1800-an

* 1803 Napoleon menetapkan Konvensi Artlenburg
o Semua Kota Bebas Kekaisaran kecuali enam buah dihapus
o Semua tanah milik Uskup-Pangeran di Jerman dihapus
Monumen Peperangan antar bangsa di Leipzig
* 1804 - 1815 Perang-perang Napoleon
* Austria bergabung dengan Koalisi Ketiga
* 1806 Keruntuhan Kekaisaran Romawi Suci
o Konfederasi Rhein dibentuk
o Prusia bergabung dengan Koalisi Keempat
* 1807 Perdamaian Tilsit
* 1812 Grimm Bersaudara menerbitkan kumpulan pertama dongeng-dongeng
* 1812 - 1814 Koalisi Keenam memasukkan negara-negara Jerman
* 1813 Wilhelm Richard Wagner lahir
o Pertempuran Leipzig: Napoleon Bonaparte dikalahkan
* 1815 Kongres Wina
o Konfederasi Jerman dibentuk
* 1818 Karl Marx lahir
* 1832 Wilhelm Busch lahir
* 1834 Zollverein (Uni Perbatasan) dibentuk
* 1840 Taman Kanak (Kindergarten) pertama dibuka oleh Friedrich Fröbel
Kaum revolusioner yang bersuka cita pada bulan Maret 1848 di Berlin
* 1844 Friedrich Nietzsche lahir
* 1848 - 1849 Revolusi tahun 1848 di negara-negara Jerman
* 1848 Parlemen Frankfurt bersidang
* 1850 Dreiklassenwahlrecht diperkenalkan di Prusia
* 1856 Sisa-sisa manusia Neanderthal ditemukan di Lembah Neander
* 1858 Max Planck lahir
* 1863 SPD didirikan
* 1866 Perang Austria-Prusia; Pertempuran Königgrätz
* 1867 Konfederasi Jerman Utara dibentuk setelah runtuhnya Konfederasi Jerman
* 1870 Perang Perancis-Prusia
* 1871 Kekaisaran Jerman diproklamasikan dri Konfederasi Jerman Utara.
* 1875 Thomas Mann lahir
* 1879 Albert Einstein lahir
* 1886 mobil dengan bahan bakar gasolin-dan ditenagai dengan mesin pembakaran dalam secara berbeda diproduksi oleh Carl Benz dan Gottlieb Daimler
* 1888 Tahun Tiga Kaisar
* 1892 Rudolf Diesel menciptakan mesin diesel

[sunting] 1900-an

* 1900 Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch mulai berlaku
* 1914 Pembunuhan Putra Mahkota Franz Ferdinand
o 1914 - 1918 Perang Dunia I
* 1918 Berakhirnya Dreiklassenwahlrecht; hak pilih semesta diperkenalkan (kaum perempuran diperkenalkan memilih untuk pertama kalinya)
* 1919 Perjanjian Versailles
o 1919–1933 Republik Weimar
* 1923 Krisis Ruhr
* 1933 Adolf Hitler diangkat sebagai Kanselir Jerman; Gleichschaltung
o 1933 - 1945 Jerman Nazi (Reich Ketiga)
* 1939 - 1945 Perang Dunia II
Berkas:100-DEM-OBV-154x74.jpg
Lembaran uang DM 100
o Sejarah Jerman sejak tahun 1945
* 1941 Konrad Zuse membangun komputer pertama, Z3
* 1945 Konferensi Potsdam
* 1946 SED dibentuk
* 1948 Deutsche Mark diperkenalkan
o FDP dibentuk
o 1948 - 1949 Blokade Berlin
* 1949 Jerman Timur dan Jerman Barat dibentuk
o CDU dibentuk
o Konrad Adenauer menjadi Kanselir Jerman pasca-perang pertama
* 1950-an Wirtschaftswunder
* 1953 Pemberontak tahun 1953 di Jerman Timur
Tembok Berlin.
* 1954 Tim nasional sepak bola Jerman Barat memenangkan Piala Dunia FIFA - Mukjizat Bern
* 1955 Jerman Barat bergabung dengan NATO; Jerman Timur bergabung dengan Pakta Warsawa
* 1961 Tembok Berlin dan sistem perbatasan Jerman Timur dibangun
* 1964 NPD didirikan
* 1967 - 1968 gerakan mahasiswa Jerman
* 1970 Usia pemilu diturunkan dari 21 ke 18
* 1970-an - 1998 RAF beroperasi
* 1972 Jerman Barat menjadi tuan rumah Olimpiade 1972 di München. Para pejuang kebebasan Palestina mengakibatkan Pembantaian München
* 1973 Jerman Timur dan Jerman Barat menjadi anggota PBB
* 1974 Jerman Barat menjadi tuan rumah dan memenangkan Piala Dunia FIFA
* 1987 Lawatan resmi pertama Erich Honecker ke Jerman Barat
* 1989 Demonstrasi Senin di Leipzig
o Tembok Berlin runtuh
* 1990 Penyatuan Kembali Jerman, Jerman memenangkan Piala Dunia
* 1991 Berlin menjadi ibu kota baru negara Jerman Bersatu
* 1993 Fusi antara Aliansi '90 dan Partai Hijau
o Jerman menanda tangani Perjanjian Maastricht yang menuju dibentuknya Uni Eropa
* 1994 Mahkamah Konstitusi Federal Jerman menyatakan Bundeswehr bisa mengambil bagian dari operasi penjaga perdamaian PBB di luar wilayah NATO
* 1999 Perang NATO pertama di Yugoslavia adalah perang non-defensif pertama di mana Bundeswehr secara aktif mengambil bagian

[sunting] 2000

* 2000 Hannover menjadi tuan rumah Expo 2000
* 2001 Wanita diperbolehkan bergabung dengan Bundeswehr untuk pertama kalinya
* 2002 Euro diperkenalkan sebagai uang kartal dan menggantikan Deutsche Mark
* 2005 Paus Benediktus XVI ditahbiskan
* 2005 Angela Merkel terpilih sebagai kanselir Jerman wanita pertama.
* 2006 Jerman menjadi tuan rumah Piala Dunia FIFA untuk kedua kalinya dengan 12 kota tuan rumah. Pada Piala Dunia FIFA ke-18 ini kesebelasan Jerman menjadi juara ketiga

kisah keadilan allah swt thd org zalim


Al-Kisah dahulu di salah satu negara timur tengah yg sedang dalam penjajahan Negara Barat , hiduplah seorang polisi berpangkat kolonel. Kolonel ini sangat kejam kpd siapa saja yg tidak mau mengikuti keinginan sang penjajah. Ia tidak segan-segan menyiksa siapa saja dg berbagai macam siksaan agar sang penjajah senang, termasuk orang-orang shaleh yg tidak bersalah sekalipun.

Namun Allah,SWT Maha Adil , setelah para atasannya yaitu penjajah barat tsb pergi dari negaranya, ia dibenci oleh rakyat negaranya bahkan keluarganya. Sampai akhirnya suatu ketika ia menderita berbagai macam penyakit seperti darah tinggi, diabetes, penyempitan pembuluh darah, keracunan darah , liver dll.

Di rumah sakit Kolonel ini pada siang hari tdk bisa tidur , pada malam hari ia menjerit kesakitan dan berteriak memanggil perawat laki-laki atau perawat wanita, setelah perawat datang ia tdk minta apa-apa hanya minta ditemani hingga matahari terbit. Itulah yg ia alami setiap malam selama berbulan-bulan menuju gerbang kematian (sakaratul maut) dg sangat sulit sekali.

Dulu ia sering menyiksa orang lain yg tdk bersalah pada malam hari kini ia oleh Allah disiksa juga pada malam hari. Kolonet ini menangis tersedu-sedu memori ingatannya masih kuat sehingga masih bisa menceritakan kisahnya ini kpd salah seorang yg mengunjunginya. Dan ia berkata :” Apa yg aku derita sekarang adalah hukuman dari Allah,SWT. sebab dulu aku menyeret banyak orang-orang yg tdk bersalah ke pengadilan dan juga menyiksa orang-orang yg sholeh karena ingin sekali menyenangkan sang penjajah barat.”

Allah,SWT membiarkan ingatannya dan hatinya berdenyut agar ia merasakan siksa dunia, tapi siksa akhirat itu lebih menyakitkan dan pedih. Nau’zubillah

Disadur dari buku : “ Adalatu As-Sama / Keadilan Langit karya Staf Jendral Mahmud Syit Khithab

konsep toleransi dalam islam


Konsep Toleransi Dalam Islam


Secara doktrinal, toleransi sepenuhnya diharuskan oleh Islam. Islam secara definisi adalah “damai”, “selamat” dan “menyerahkan diri”. Definisi Islam yang demikian sering dirumuskan dengan istilah “Islam agama rahmatal lil’alamîn” (agama yang mengayomi seluruh alam). Ini berarti bahwa Islam bukan untuk menghapus semua agama yang sudah ada. Islam menawarkan dialog dan toleransi dalam bentuk saling menghormati. Islam menyadari bahwa keragaman umat manusia dalam agama dan keyakinan adalah kehendak Allah, karena itu tak mungkin disamakan. Dalam al-Qur’an Allah berfirman yang artinya, ““dan Jikalau Tuhanmu menghendaki, tentulah beriman semua orang yang di muka bumi seluruhnya. Maka Apakah kamu (hendak) memaksa manusia supaya mereka menjadi orang-orang yang beriman semuanya?”

Di bagian lain Allah mengingatkan, yang artinya: “Sesungguhnya ini adalah umatmu semua (wahai para rasul), yaitu umat yang tunggal, dan aku adalah Tuhanmu, maka sembahlah olehmu sekalian akan Daku (saja). Ayat ini menegaskan bahwa pada dasarnya umat manusia itu tunggal tapi kemudian mereka berpencar memilih keyakinannya masing-masing. Ini mengartikulasikan bahwa Islam memahami pilihan keyakinan mereka sekalipun Islam juga menjelaskan “sesungguhnya telah jelas antara yang benar dari yang bathil”.

Selanjutnya, di Surah Yunus Allah menandaskan lagi, yang artinya: “Katakan olehmu (ya Muhamad), ‘Wahai Ahli Kitab! Marilah menuju ke titik pertemuan (kalimatun sawa atau common values) antara kami dan kamu, yaitu bahwa kita tidak menyembah selain Allah dan tidak pula memperserikatkan-Nya kepada apa pun, dan bahwa sebagian dari kita tidak mengangkat sebagian yang lain sebagai “tuhan-tuhan” selain Allah!” Ayat ini mengajak umat beragama (terutama Yahudi, Kristiani, dan Islam) menekankan persamaan dan menghindari perbedaan demi merengkuh rasa saling menghargai dan menghormati. Ayat ini juga mengajak untuk sama-sama menjunjung tinggi tawhid, yaitu sikap tidak menyekutukan Allah dengan selain-Nya. Jadi, ayat ini dengan amat jelas menyuguhkan suatu konsep toleransi antar-umat beragama yang didasari oleh kepentingan yang sama, yaitu ‘menjauhi konflik’.

Saling menghargai dalam iman dan keyakinan adalah konsep Islam yang amat komprehensif. Konsekuensi dari prinsip ini adalah lahirnya spirit taqwa dalam beragama. Karena taqwa kepada Allah melahirkan rasa persaudaraan universal di antara umat manusia. Abu Ju’la dengan amat menarik mengemukakan, “Al-khalqu kulluhum ‘iyalullahi fa ahabbuhum ilahi anfa’uhum li’iyalihi” (“Semu makhluk adalah tanggungan Allah, dan yang paling dicintainya adalah yang paling bermanfaat bagi sesama tanggungannya”).

Selain itu, hadits Nabi tentang persaudaraan universal juga menyatakan, “irhamuu man fil ardhi yarhamukum man fil sama” (sayangilah orang yang ada di bumi maka akan sayang pula mereka yang di lanit kepadamu). Persaudaran universal adalah bentuk dari toleransi yang diajarkan Islam. Persaudaraan ini menyebabkan terlindunginya hak-hak orang lain dan diterimanya perbedaan dalam suatu masyarakat Islam. Dalam persaudaraan universal juga terlibat konsep keadilan, perdamaian, dan kerja sama yang saling menguntungkan serta menegasikan semua keburukan.

Fakta historis toleransi juga dapat ditunjukkan melalui Piagam Madinah. Piagam ini adalah satu contoh mengenai prinsip kemerdekaan beragama yang pernah dipraktikkan oleh Nabi Muhamad SAW di Madinah. Di antara butir-butir yang menegaskan toleransi beragama adalah sikap saling menghormati di antara agama yang ada dan tidak saling menyakiti serta saling melindungi anggota yang terikat dalam Piagam Madinah.

Sikap melindungi dan saling tolong-menolong tanpa mempersoalkan perbedaan keyakinan juga muncul dalam sejumlah Hadis dan praktik Nabi. Bahkan sikap ini dianggap sebagai bagian yang melibatkan Tuhan. Sebagai contoh, dalam sebuah hadis yang diriwayatkan dalam Syu’ab al-Imam, karya seorang pemikir abad ke-11, al-Baihaqi, dikatakan: “Siapa yang membongkar aib orang lain di dunia ini, maka Allah (nanti) pasti akan membongkar aibnya di hari pembalasan”.

Di sini, saling tolong-menolong di antara sesama umat manusia muncul dari pemahaman bahwa umat manusia adalah satu badan, dan kehilangan sifat kemanusiaannya bila mereka menyakiti satu sama lain. Tolong-menolong, sebagai bagian dari inti toleransi, menajdi prinsip yang sangat kuat di dalam Islam.

Namun, prinsip yang mengakar paling kuat dalam pemikiran Islam yang mendukung sebuah teologi toleransi adalah keyakinan kepada sebuah agama fitrah, yang tertanam di dalam diri semua manusia, dan kebaikan manusia merupakan konsekuensi alamiah dari prinsip ini. Dalam hal ini, al-Qur’an menyatakan yang artinya: “Maka hadapkanlah wajahmu ke arah agama menurut cara (Alla); yang alamiah sesuai dengan pola pemberian (fitrah) Allah, atas dasar mana Dia menciptakan manusia…”

Mufassir Baidhawi terhadap ayat di atas menegaskan bahwa kalimat itu merujuk pada perjanjian yang disepakati Adam dan keturunanya. Perjanjian ini dibuat dalam suatu keadaan, yang dianggap seluruh kaum Muslim sebagai suatu yang sentral dalam sejarah moral umat manusia, karena semua benih umat manusia berasal dari sulbi anak-anak Adam. Penegasan Baidhawi sangat relevan jika dikaitkan dengan hadis yang diriwayatkan Imam Bukhari, Nabi ditanya: “Agama yang manakah yang paling dicintai Allah?’ Beliau menjawab “agama asal mula yang toleran (al-hanîfiyyatus samhah).

Dilihat dari argumen-argumen di atas, menunjukkan bahwa baik al-Qur’an maupun Sunnah Nabi secara otentik mengajarkan toleransi dalam artinya yang penuh. Ini jelas berbeda dengan gagasan dan praktik toleransi yang ada di barat. Toleransi di barat lahir karena perang-perang agama pada abad ke-17 telah mengoyak-ngoyak rasa kemanusiaan sehingga nyaris harga manusia jatuh ke titik nadir. Latar belakang itu menghasilkan kesepakatan-kesepakatan di bidang Toleransi Antar-agama yang kemudian meluas ke aspek-aspek kesetaraan manusia di depan hukum.

Lalu, apa itu as-samahah (toleransi)? Toleransi menurut Syekh Salim bin Hilali memiliki karakteristik sebagai berikut, yaitu antara lain:
1. Kerelaan hati karena kemuliaan dan kedermawanan
2. Kelapangan dada karena kebersihan dan ketaqwaan
3. Kelemah lembutan karena kemudahan
4. Muka yang ceria karena kegembiraan
5. Rendah diri dihadapan kaum muslimin bukan karena kehinaan
6. Mudah dalam berhubungan sosial (mu'amalah) tanpa penipuan dan kelalaian
7. Menggampangkan dalam berda'wah ke jalan Allah tanpa basa basi
8. Terikat dan tunduk kepada agama Allah Subhanahu wa Ta'ala tanpa ada rasa keberatan.
Selanjutnya, menurut Salin al-Hilali karakteristik itu merupakan [a] Inti Islam, [b] Seutama iman, dan [c] Puncak tertinggi budi pekerti (akhlaq). Dalam konteks ini Rasulullah Shallallahu 'alaihi wa sallam, bersabda. Artinya: “Sebaik-baik orang adalah yang memiliki hati yang mahmum dan lisan yang jujur, ditanyakan: Apa hati yang mahmum itu? Jawabnya : 'Adalah hati yang bertaqwa, bersih tidak ada dosa, tidak ada sikap melampui batas dan tidak ada rasa dengki'. Ditanyakan: Siapa lagi (yang lebih baik) setelah itu?. Jawabnya : 'Orang-orang yang membenci dunia dan cinta akhirat'. Ditanyakan : Siapa lagi setelah itu? Jawabnya : 'Seorang mukmin yang berbudi pekerti luhur."

Dasar-dasar al-Sunnah (Hadis Nabi) tersebut dikemukakan untuk menegaskan bahwa toleransi dalam Islam itu sangat komprehensif dan serba-meliputi. Baik lahir maupun batin. Toleransi, karena itu, tak akan tegak jika tidak lahir dari hati, dari dalam. Ini berarti toleransi bukan saja memerlukan kesediaan ruang untuk menerima perbedaan, tetapi juga memerlukan pengorbanan material maupun spiritual, lahir maupun batin. Di sinilah, konsep Islam tentang toleransi (as-samahah) menjadi dasar bagi umat Islam untuk melakukan mu’amalah (hablum minan nas) yang ditopang oleh kaitan spiritual kokoh (hablum minallah).

Oleh Ust. Syamsul Arifin Nababan

papua


Transcript: Tunaliwor Kiwo Testimony (Bahasa Indonesia)
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by Dewan Adat Papua — last modified Nov 21, 2010 08:16 PM

Petani Papua Tunaliwor Kiwo menceritakan kisah penyiksaanyang ia alami ketika ditangkap anggota TNI pada tanggal 30 Mei, 2010. Kesaksian dan kronologinya dilakukan dalam Bahasa Lani, namun diterjemahkan ke Bahasa Indonesia.
Transcript: Tunaliwor Kiwo Testimony (Bahasa Indonesia)

Tunaliwor Kiwo

Video Testimony di sini
Terima kasih, saya akan menceritakan kronologi penyiksaan yang saya alami dari awal sampai akhir.

Pada hari Minggu tanggal 30 Mei 2010 dari Tingginambut menuju ke Mulia, saya menggunakan ojek sampai di Pos TNI Kwanggok Nalime, Kampung Yogorini. Saya Anggen Pugu Tunaliwor Kiwo dan Telengga Gire dipanggil oleh aparat TNI di pos itu. Lalu, tanpa curiga kami datang ke pos TNI Nalime tersebut. Kami pikir mungkin mereka mau kasih sesuatu ,atau rokok kah namun bukan demikian, melainkan kami diinterogasi langsung dan mereka bertanya kepada kami ... Lalu mereka bertanya, “Kamu tinggal dimana?”, “Ya, kami tinggal di Kampung Tingginambut, Ibu Kota Distrik” ... “Apakah kamu punya KTP?” … “Ya kami punya, lalu kami tunjukan kepada mereka”.

Langsung, tidak bertanya banyak, saya, Anggen Pugu Kiwo, dan Telengga Gire diikat dengan tali dan diseret kebelakang pos dengan menarik ujung tali dibalik ke belakang saya dari arah kiri pos ke belakang, lalu langsung pertama-tama ditampeleng keras pada telinga kiri dan dan telinga kanan ditarik ... didorong ... dibanting ke tanah. Habis itu kedua kaki kami diikat dengan kawat berduri. Lalu ditarik ujung tali yang sudah terikat pada tangan kami dan diseret-seret dari arah Sungai Nagarak.

Kayu balok yang sudah dipersiapkan ... lalu mereka mulai hajar saya dari leher sampai tulang punggung, hancur-hancuran ... dan kayu balok tadi patah-patah, hancur di badan saya. Setelah balok tadi patah, lalu mereka buang.

Sehabis itu mereka mengambil karung plastik ... lalu memasukan kepala saya sampai kaki, lalu diikat dan kemudian membukanya lagi ... Lalu ganti dengan kantong plastik hitam ukuran besar, mereka memasukan saya dari kepala dan menarik leher saya. Semua mulut dan hidung tertutup. Plastik lalu diikat mati sehingga saya tidak sanggup bernafas dan mencoba membuka mulut tidak bisa karena sudah rapat betul dan hampir tidak bisa bernafas lagi ... Tidak bisa ... tidak bisa bernafas ... Lalu mereka membukanya lagi.

Kemudian mereka bertanya, “Ko harus jujur ... ko harus jujur” ... “Ya, saya tidak tau, saya ini hanya masyarakat biasa” ... Berulang-ulang ... Tetapi mereka terus memaksa saya ... “Ah ko tipu ko harus jujur jawab, ko OPM to ...?” Kami ditekan terus sehingga bingung mau bicara, sudah kaku dan gementar suara kami, sudah tidak bisa jawab dengan baik karena kami gugup. Akhirnya mereka terus menyiksa saya ... terus ... menyiksa terus. Bolak-balik memukul saya dari ujung rambut sampai kaki dalam keadaan kaki dan tangan sudah terikat ... Saya mulai tidak berdaya ...

Lalau mereka masuk ke pos mengambil tang, lalu jepit jari-jari kaki saya ... tarik keras sampai hancur-hancuran. Saya terus histeris sampai terkencing-kencing ... aduh ... aye lalu pindah lagi ke kaki sebelah, maksudnya dari kaki kiri pindah lagi ke jari-jari kaki kanan.

Dengan cara yang sama mereka jepit penis saya sampai hampir putus, saya terus ... histeris, aye bopanu … be ... andi aye (aduh sakit lepaskan saya). Mereka mengatakan, “Kami akan potong kemaluan kamu” ... Saya terus histeris ... mereka menyiksa saya dari jam 9.00 pagi. Kaki, tangan sudah posis terikat dari pagi

Kemudian menarik ujung tali yang sudah terikat ditangan saya ditarik, banting dari kiri kekanan, dari kanan ke kiri, mengakibatkan banyak benturan kepala, kaki terkena benda-benda keras termasuk diding rumah, batu dan sebagainya, mengakibatkan lutut kanan saya ini sudah rusak, tidak bisa jalan normal seperti dulu lagi, tapi jalan lutut kanan saya pincang.

Tak terasa mereka menyiksa saya dari jam 9.00 pagi sampai jam 6.00 sore. Mereka seret saya masuk ke dalam dapur mereka di bagian belakang.

Kaki, tangan saya tetap terikat lalu merek ikat kaki saya dengan tali satu-satu, dan diikat ke kayu dan tangan saya tetap diikat ke belakang dan tergantung keatas.

Sesudah itu ada satu anggota yang datang dan menginjakan kaki, lengkap dengan sepatu laras menginjak kaki di muka dan hidung. Dia menekan kakinya danb kepala saya terbentur ke tembok ...terpantul ... dan lagi kembali diinjak lagi sampai berulang-ulang mengakibatkan darah saya dari hidung, mulut, dan kepala mengalir, menutupi semua mulut, dada, kumis. Karena dalam posisi terikat jadi sulit saya lap darah saya, jadi terpaksa tiu-tiup fu ... fu ... fu … fu … agar tidak menutup mulut saya ado ... saya pasrah saja apa boleh buat.

Setelah itu, mereka membakar rokok ... pura-pura mau kasih saya lalu saya buka mulut untuk merokok ... tiba-tiba tarik balik apinya tancap di hidung saya sehingga hidung saya semua terbakar dengan api puntung rokok.

Kemudian mengisi air di ember sampai penuh dan sudah tengah malam, badan keram ... campur dingin, mereka siram air dari kepala sampai ke seluruh tubuh ... saya saya bilang ... aduh dingin be ... tapi mereka tidak mau tahu ... siram air dingin sampai badan saya jadi gementar ... keram dan seluruh tubuh menjadi kaku. Saya bilang aduh dingin tapi justru ditambah menyiram air dingin terus.

Akibat dari tali yang mereka ikat dengan kencang dari jam 9.00 pagi tadi membuat kaki dan tangan saya menjadi bengkak yang luar biasa

Penyiksaan selanjutnya adalah mereka panaskan besi atau kawat lalu tempel di kiri-kanan paha saya. Saya terus berteriak ... “Aye ... aye ... andi be” ... kemudian dikasih panas lagi tempel lagi di perut kiri-kanan saya, “... aye andi be ...” lalau dikasih panas lagi tempelkan lagi di dada kiri dan kanan ... saya terus berteriak ... “aye ... andi … be …” tapi mereka tidak perduli dengan kesakitan saya ... ado luar biasa menyiksa saya dari jam 9.00 pagi sampai malam sampai pagi ... seret saya ... keluar ...

Mereka meletakan saya di halaman pos lalu saya sampaikan bahwa saya ini adiknya Bapak Sekda (Yustus Wonda) jadi tolong panggil dia agar datang jemput saya dengan suara yang sudah terputus-putus ... namun mereka meniru gaya saya bicara dan menertawakan saya ...

Pagi hari itu (sudah hari ke II) mulai siksa saya lagi menggunakan balok. Mereka menyiksa saya, dipukul dari ujung kepala sampai ke ujung kaki bolak balik sampai-sampai hancur-hancuran dalam keadan kaki tangan tetap terikat dengan tali.

Penyiksaan lain lagi mereka masuk dalam pos sambil pisau sangkur ... lalu satu datang menginjak muka, mulut dan hidung ... mereka lalu meletakan pisau sangkur di leher saya, satu dari arah kiri dan yang satu lagi dari arah kanan, mencoba mengancam memotong leher saya, dan saat dinjak itulah hidung saya terbelah ini [menunjukkan hidungnya] ... saya pikir leher saya pasti putus namun belum juga terputus.

Kemudian mereka posisikan saya terbaring tertidur, dan papan kayu taruh diatas, melapisi dada, muka, perut, saya lalu ... tes-tes belah dengan kapak dari kiri, jatuh papan tembus kena papan yang mereka alas di sebelah leher kiri dan kanan saya.

Penyiksaan berikut adalah kaki dan tangan saya tetap terikat, kaki disuruh lipat dan ambil tali mengikat dari leher, lapis dengan kaki kencang sementara tangan tetap terikat di belakang. Kemudian mereka tumpuk kayu bakar yang ada di halaman pos, angkat dan tumpuk semua diatas leher dan badan saya sampai tinggi. Saya sudah hampir tak bisa bernafas lalu disamping kaki kiri dan kanan disiram bensin lalu dibakar. Saya berada di posisi tenggah dengan kayu bakar ... ado saya tidak bisa bergerak, panasnya api semakin menghanguskan tubuh saya karena kaki tangan saya tetap masih dalam keadaan terikat mati ... saya terus histeris kesakitan.

Mereka kemudian melepaskan saya dan seret saya keluar dari tumpukan kayu bakar, lalu berdiri dengan posisi kepala di tanah dan muka menghadap ke atas. Dalam posisi sisi badan ke tanah lalu merka tes membelah saya dengan kapak, tembus masuk ke sisi kepala kiri dan kanan mencabut kapak yang tertanam dalam tanah dan kotoran terhambur menutup muka dan mata saya … luar biasa mereka menyikas saya ... dan posisi pasrah siap mati sudah tak berdaya mereka lakukan pada saya. Hal itu mereka lakukan sebelum matahari naik, kira-kira antara jam 5-6 pagi

Sekitar jam 8.00 pagi saya diseret dan dicukur kumis dan rambut saya dengan cara yang tidak-tidak. Rambut saya dipotong dari semua arah, kepala saya disilet ... silet tidak terarah mengakibatkan silet kena di mulut, telinga, hidung dan di muka semua berdarah karena muka saya dan kepala kumis semua disilet sampai botak. Kepala saya berdarah-darah.

Penyiksaan beralih, aparat TNI itu membuat sambal dengan rica [cabe] dalam jumlah yang sangat banyak, bawang merah, putih bawang putih, sabun Rinso, garam campur ditumbuk dengan air lalu menyiram tubuh saya dari kepala sampai ke seluruh tubuh saya ... saya berteriak karena sakit tapi mereka justru semakin brutal dan terus menyiram ke bagian tubuh yang belum tersiram. Mereka membalikkan tubuh saya lalu menyiram terus sambal itu semua siraman ditubuh saya sampai habis ...

Lalu mereka seret saya dan menjemur saya di terik panasnya matahari di samping rumah pos itu sampai tak sadar diri. Semua lalat menempel di seluruh tubuh saya, dimulut, hidung, telinga ... lalat kemudian kembali hinggap ditubuh saya lagi sampai matahari dari barat mulai terbenam di bawah kaki Gunung Arimuli atau Puncak Senjum. Ketika saya sadar, hari sudah mulai senja kira-kira pukul 4.30 sore.

Lalu komandan pos memerintahkan kepada anggota TNI yang berprofesi sebagai matri untuk bersikan saya, lalu mantri tadi ... mengatakan “Ado, kasihan,” dan ia buka tali yang diikat tadi baik di kaki maupun di tangan. Kaki dan tangan saya bengkak, tidak bisa jalan, jadi matri itu bantu peluk saya turun di kali tempat mandi lalu saya dimandikan pakai sabun sampai bersih lalu karena celana saya kotor jadi dia memakaikan celana, dia lalu gendong saya dan membawa saya kembali ke pos. Setelah sampai di pos seluruh tubuh saya yang sakit disirami dengan alkohol, dibersikan dan digosok Betadine diseluruh tubuh yang luka. Kemudian ia suntik kaki kiri, kanan dan tangan kiri, kanan, di paha kiri dan kanan, menjahit hidung saya yang terbelah akibat penyiksaan tadi dengan benang. Saya merasa sangat dingin jadi kembali dipakaikan baju dan jaket yang ada disitu, jadi diambilkan dan dipakaikan pada saya lalu baringkan saya diatas serambi tidur pulas sampai bangun jam 6.00 sore.

Setelah bangun, mereka menyuruh saya angkat kaki dan tangan, maksudnya untuk diikat kembali, namun sangat sulit untuk diangkat karena bengkak dan berat sekali untuk angkat, susah, sehingga kaki saya tidak jadi ikat dan tangan saya juga mau diikat ke arah belakang namun tidak bisa karena saat penyiksaan semua jadi rusak, keram tulang tangan, kaku sehingga tidak bisa dibengkokkan kebelakang. Jadi mereka terpaksa ikat di arah depan, mencoba ikat keras namun saya kesakitan lalu mereka ikat agak longgar lalu masukan saya untuk tidur di serambi.

Satu hari sebelumnya mereka tidurkan saya di tanah, jadi mudah untuk angkat kaki sementara saya berusaha angkat kaki itu membuat tanah dimana kaki saya ada saya bikin sampai jadi lobang dalam, saat saya tarik-tarik kaki.

Setelah saya dimandikan sampai bersih tadi, kemudian ditidurkan dengan alas tikar dan diatasnya pakai plastik warna kuning yang biasa dipakai untuk evakuasi mayat dari pembunuhan atau kecelakaaan lalulintas, saya diatas rapat dengan plastik itu serta kepala saya di kasih bantal serta tutup bandan saya dengan jas mantel atau jas tidur milik TNI berwarna hijau agar tidak kedinginan dan tidur nyenyak.

Sekitar 11.30 saya tak sengaja terbangun dari tidur. Sementara saya tetap terbaring lalu saya mendengar semua rencana eksekusi saya besok pagi. Waktu tinggal hitungan jam, saya dengar korban bahwa ... sekarang sudah jam 12, oh ... sekarang sudah ... jam 1, hitung-hitung jam ... oh sekarang sudah pukul ... 2 pagi oh sekarang sudah masuk ... jam 3.00 pagi hari. Waktu semakin mendesak, mereka semua sibuk, mereka memasak air panas lalu mereka buat kopi, teh dan masak Supermie masing-masing di dalam plastiknya, Supermie lalu ikat ujungnya, beberapa menit setelah masak mereka makan sendiri-sendiri. Mereka sangat ramai karena sedikit lagi akan mengeksekusi saya, sementara saya terus mendengar setiap kalimat dan kata-kata mereka yang mereka ucapkan.

Pada jam 3.00 mereka kontak dangan HT dimana kesatuan mereka bertugas di Pos Kalome, Pos Tingginambut dan Pos Puncak Senyum, bahkan mungkin di Kota Mulia juga mereka melaporkan bahwa: “Yang satunya mereka sudah tembak tembak, tetapi satunya masih hidup”. Ketika mendengar itu saya pikir Telengga Gire mungkin sudah ditembak mati, padahal belum. Maksudnya yang “sudah ditembak” itu mereka mau tembak saya [Kiwo].

Waktu sudah menunjukan ukul 3 lebih lalu mereka mengatakan mobil akan datang kesini jam 8 jadi kami akan menembak mati orang ini tepat pada jam 9 pagi lalu akan dinaikkan ke mobil. Saat itulah saya, Kiwo, hati kacau campur takut dan cemas

Saya mulai perlahan-lahan lepaskan tali yang diikat di tangan saya, buka dengan gigi pelan-pelan tetapi tetap kencang, saya tarik jadi kelihatan mereka lihat tali masih span karena ujung tali diikat di diding, dan ujungnya diikat di tangannya korban.

Sementara itu saya curi-curi pandang, lalu berdiri, tetapi mereka lihat saya lalu tegur saya, “Ko ... tidur, jangan bangun ... ko ... tidur, jagan bagun lagi.” Tetapi tetap saya pelan-pelan angkat kepala terus sampai ... saya mendengar sudah jam 4.00 pagi.

Kiwo Mulai berdoa, isi doa adalah:

Terimakasih Tuhan Allah Jika Engkau menghendaki saya akan mati ditangan militer Indonesia, maka pada hari Selasa tanggal 11 Mei tahun 2010, jam 9.00 pagi ini pasti saya akan ditembak mati di tempat ini, maka hidup saya, saya serahkan kedalam tanganMu ya Tuhan.

Tuhan tolong bawa orang-orang yang menyiksa dan membunuh saya ini kedalam tangan orang-orang saya yang akan membela menganti kepala saya dan menggantikan nyawa saya supaya mereka juga ditembak mati, apa bila mereka akan membunuh saya pada jam 9.00 pagi ini. Terima kasih Tuhan Yesus.

Tetapi jika Tuhan telah merencanakan hidup saya mati atau dipanggil Tuhan dengan cara lain, sakit penyakit, maka saya tidak akan mati ditangan TNI di pagi hari ini maka Tuhan saya mohon buat mereka buta dan tidak berdaya dan lepaskan saya subuh jam 4.00 - 6.00 sebelum jam 9.00 Pagi ini keluar dari tempat ini. Terima kasih Tuhan di dalam nama Tuhan Yesus ... Amin.

Akhirnya Tuhan memberikan kekuatan kepada saya untuk mengangkat tubuh dari tempat tidur. Drum yang ada dan tindis kepada satu orang yang standby menjaga saya tindis diseluruh badan dan saya tindis kaki saya lompat keluar lalu kaki saya menginjak serambi mereka yang ada di pos depan, saya pikir ini teman mereka yang jaga saya yang keluar dan ketika kaki saya sudah lompat keluar, saya ketahuan lalu mereka menembak dengan tembakan peluru luar biasa ke arah saya namun tidak satu peluru pun kena tubuh saya.

Saya lepas lari dengan berguling-guling. Saya lari jatuh ... lari ... jatuh begitu terus sampai agak jauh sedikit saya jatuh dalam tempat yang saya sulit berdiri, saya usaha setelah jatu mencoba berdiri tapi tidak bisa jatuh lagi ... kedua kali lagi mencoba berdiri namun tidak bisa lagi ... yang ketiga juga tidak bisa berdiri, akhirnya saya menyerah tetapi lama kemudian saya mencoba berdiri akhirnya saya dapat berdiri dan jalan. Kalau mereka terus mengejar saya maka mungkin saya sudah pasti mati di situ. Saya jalan ibarat anak umur 1 tahun baru belajar jalan, sebantar berdiri ... sebantar-sebentar jatuh lagi ... seperti itulah yang saya alami. Saya terus lari ketemu jalan besar ... saya langsung merayap masuk dalam semak-semak, celana putih tadi saya buka lalu pegang di tangan agar mereka tidak mendapatkan saya. Sampai tiba di Kali Yamo sudah mulai pagi sekitar jam 5.00, dan 6.00 pagi saya ikut Kali Yamo bertemu keluarga.

Keluarga takut mendekati saya dan menjabat tangan karena mereka sudah dengar kabar tersiar bahwa Kiwo sudah dibunuh oleh TNI dan juga ada ceritra dongeng tentang orang yang datang mengujungi keluarga setelah meninggal, jadi mereka pikir jangan-jangan kamu bayangan apa benar ... lalu Kiwo menjawab “Ah ... ini saya betul masih hidup ... saya disiksa dan saya selamatkan diri.”

Keluarga bilang, “Ada dua pemuda memyampaikan surat kepada pos TNI itu agar agar kamu segera pulang karena kamu selama ini dicari Goliat Tabuni itu”, tu sudah yang kamu bunuh itu ... namun karena tiba-tiba Kiwo masih hidup dan muncul maka rencana mereka antar surat ke pos mau titip lewat tukang ojek tidak jadi, kembali dari jalan.

Keluarga memotong babi. Keluarga langsung memotong babi sebagai tanda bertemu kembali keluarga yang selamat dari maut dan secara adat mereka membunuh babi dan memeriksa semua bagian tubuh yang hancur namun hanya dua tulang rusuk yang patah dan semua tulang dalam tubuh dari kepala sampai kaki menjadi merah. Semua lalu mereka bersihkan, dan masak, dan dirawat dengan obat-obat yang dikirim dari Mulia dan saya sudah sembuh seperti sekarang ini

Sampai hari ini saya ragu dengan kesehatan saya, jangan-jangan saya akan kambuh sakit kembali namun masih sehat karena memang saya ini orang yang punya tipe hidup tidak sembarangan, artinya tidak pernah mengambil barang milik orang lain, memarahi orang dan menyakiti hati orang lain, tidak pernah, jadi Tuhan tolong saya dan saya selamat.

Itulah kronologi penyiksaan yang saya alami waktu itu dan saya sampaikan terima kasih. Nama saya AnggenPugu Kiwo. Jadi itu sudah bekas-bekas penyiksaan luka yang saya alami. Wa wa wa wa

penyatuan kembali jerman


Penyatuan kembali Jerman
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Sejarah Jerman
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v • d • e
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Penyatuan kembali Jerman (Jerman Deutsche Wiedervereinigung) berlangsung pada tanggal 3 Oktober 1990, ketika mantan daerah Republik Demokratis Jerman ("Jerman Timur") digabungkan ke dalam Republik Federal Jerman ("Jerman Barat").

Selepas pemilihan umum bebas pertama Jerman Timur pada tanggal 18 Maret 1990, rundingan di antara Jerman Timur dan Jerman Barat selesai dalam satu kesatuan perjanjian, manakala rundingan di antara Jerman Timur dan Jerman Barat serta empat kuasa pendudukan menghasilkan kononnya "Perjanjian dua tambah empat" yang menegaskan kedaulatan penuh kepada negara kesatuan Jerman.

Negara Jerman yang telah bersatu menjadi anggota Komunitas Eropa (kemudian Uni Eropa) dan NATO. Istilah "Penyatuan kembali" digunakan berbeda dengan persatuan awal negara Jerman pada tahun 1871. Walaupun biasanya disebut dengan istilah "Penyatuan kembali", ia sebenarnya suatu "penyatuan" bagi negeri Jerman kepada satu entitas yang lebih besar, yang tidak pernah ada sebelum ini (lihat Sejarah Jerman). Para politisi Jerman sendiri menghindari pemakaian istilah seperti ini dan lebih suka menyebutnya sebagai die Wende.
Daftar isi
[sembunyikan]

* 1 Latar belakang
* 2 Berakhirnya pemisahan (die Wende)
* 3 Penyatuan kembali
* 4 Efek persatuan ulang
* 5 Catatan kaki dan referensi
* 6 Lihat pula

[sunting] Latar belakang
Pemisahan Jerman Barat dan Jerman Timur

Selepas habisnya Perang Dunia II di Eropa, Negara Jerman telah dibagi-bagi menjadi empat zona pendudukan. Ibu kota lama Berlin, sebagai pusat Dewan Kontrol Tentara Sekutu sendiri dibagi menjadi empat zona. Meskipun niat kuasa pendudukan adalah untuk mengawal Jerman bersama-sama dari tahun 1947, kedatangan Perang Dingin menyebabkan Perancis, Britania Raya dan Amerika Serikat menggabungkan zona-zona mereka ke dalam Republik Federal Jerman (dan Berlin Barat) pada 1949, tidak termasuk zona Uni Soviet yang kemudian menjadi Republik Demokratik Jerman (termasuk Berlin Timur) pada tahun yang sama. Selain itu, sejajar dengan syarat-syarat Konferensi Yalta pada Februari 1945, wilayah-wilayah timur Pomerania dan Silesia, serta separuh daripada selatan Prusia Timur, diberikan kepada Polandia dan separuh daripada utara Prusia Timur (kini dikenal sebagai Kaliningrad Oblast) diberikan kepada Uni Soviet.

Jerman Barat dan Jerman Timur kedua-dua mengklain sebagai pengganti sah bagi penduduk Kerajaan Jerman yang Lama (Deutsches Reich). Bagaimanapun jua, Jerman Timur mengubah pendapatnya selepas itu, dan menyatakan bahwa Negara Jerman telah berhenti ada pada tahun 1945 dan bahwa kedua-dua Jerman Barat dan Jerman Timur adalah negara baru.

Rencana pertama untuk menyatukan bagi-bagian wilayah Jerman diajukan oleh Josef Stalin pada 1952 di bawah syarat-syarat sebagaimana yang kemudian diambil untuk Austria (lihat Perjanjian Negeri Austria). Ia memerlukan penciptaan satu Negara Jerman yang netral dengan sebuah perbatasan timur yang disebut sebagai Perbatasan Oder-Neisse dan semua pasukan bersekutu dipindahkan pada tahun yang sama. Pemerintahan Jerman Barat di bawah Kanselir Konrad Adenauer lebih menyukai integrasi lebih dekat dengan Eropa Barat dan meminta Penyatuan kembali dirundingkan dengan syarat pemilihan umum seluruh Jerman dan dipantau Dunia Internasional. Syarat ini ditolak oleh Uni Soviet. Satu lagi rencana Stalin ialah melibatkan Penyatuan kembali Negara Jerman dengan mengikuti perbatasan sesuai tanggal 31 Desember 1937 di bawah syarat bahwa Negara Jerman bergabung dengan Pakta Warsawa (Blok Timur).
Pendudukan Jerman pada 1945

Mulai 1949 dan seterusnya, Republik Federal Jerman dibangun menjadi suatu negara barat kapitalis dengan sebuah "ekonomi pasar sosial" dan pemerintahan demokratis berparlemen. Pertumbuhan ekonomi berpanjangan bermula dalam 1950 dan menghasilkan satu "keajaiban ekonomi" 30-tahun (Wirtschaftswunder). Manakala di Republik Demokratis Jerman menubuhkan suatu pemerintahan otoriter dengan suatu gaya meniru ekonomi Uni Soviet. Walaupun Jerman Timur menjadi terkaya dan negara paling maju di Blok Timur, banyak dari warganya yang masih melihat ke Barat untuk kebebasan politik dan kemakmuran ekonomi. Pelarian orang Jerman Timur ke negara non-komunis melalui Berlin Barat menyebabkan Jerman Timur menegakkan satu sistem penjagaan perbatasan ketat (yang mana Tembok Berlin adalah bagian darinya) pada 1961 untuk mencegah pelarian massal ini.

Pemerintahan Jerman Barat dan sekutu NATO-nya pada mulanya tidak mengakui Republik Demokratis Jerman (Jerman Timur) atau Republik Rakyat Polandia, mengikut Doktrin Hallstein. Hubungan antara Jerman Timur dan Jerman Barat senantiasa dingin sehingga Kanselir Barat Willy Brandt melancarkan pemulihan hubungan baik yang kontroversial dengan Jerman Timur (Ostpolitik) pada tahun 1970-an.
[sunting] Berakhirnya pemisahan (die Wende)

Pada pertengahan tahun 1980-an Penyatuan kembali Jerman oleh rakyat Jerman Barat dan Timur secara luas dianggap sebagai suatu cita-cita atau harapan tinggi tak terhingga yang sulit dicapai. Namun harapan untuk Penyatuan kembali Jerman tiba-tiba muncul kembali dengan reformasi politik yang digelindingkan oleh pemimpin Soviet Mikhail Gorbachev di tahun 1985. Setelah ini angin perubahan mulai berhembus di Blok Timur, dan memunculkan harapan baru di dalam Jerman Timur.

Pada bulan Agustus 1989, pemerintahan reformis Hongaria menghilangkan peraturan ketat di perbatasannya dengan Austria dan pada September lebih dari 13.000 warga Jerman Timur bisa melarikan diri ke Barat melalui Hongaria. Ribuan warga Jerman Timur berusaha mencapai Jerman Barat dengan mengadakan aksi pendudukan kantor-kantor perwakilan diplomatik Jerman Barat di ibu kota-ibu kota negara-negara Eropa Timur, terutama di Praha, Cekoslowakia. Pemerintahan Republik Demokratis Jerman (Jerman Timur) lalu mengumumkan akan memberikan fasilitas dengan mengoperasikan kereta-kereta api ekstra yang membawa mereka ke Jerman Barat dan menyatakan bahwa mereka mengusir "para pengkhianat antisosial yang tak bertanggung jawab dan kaum kriminal"[1]. Sementara itu demonstrasi menentang rezim Jerman Timur berawal di tanah air sendiri, terutama yang paling penting adalah demonstrasi-demonstrasi Senin di Leipzig.

Pada tanggal 6–7 Oktober 1989, Gorbachev melawat Jerman Timur untuk memperingati hari ulang tahun Jerman Timur yang ke-40 dan mendorong para pemimpin Jerman Timur untuk menerima perubahan. Berhadapan dengan huru-hara, pemimpin Jerman Timur Erich Honecker telah dipaksa untuk meletakkan jabatan pada 18 Oktober 1989 oleh anggota Politburonya sendiri dan digantikan oleh Egon Krenz. Hal ini diikuti dengan pengunduran diri besar-besaran anggota kabinet Jerman Timur yang akhirnya jatuh pada tanggal 7 November. Lalu Gunther Schwabowski sebagai juru bicara pemerintahan Jerman Timur pada tanggal 9 November malam mengumumkan di televisi bahwa semua restriksi perjalanan ke Jerman Barat dihilangkan. Semula warga Jerman Timur kurang mengerti maksud pernyataannya. Setelah itu jutaan warga Jerman Timur berbondong-bondong pergi ke pos-pos perbatasan yang kemudian dibuka oleh para penjaga perbatasan. Setelah itu banyak warga Jerman baik Barat dan Timur memberanikan diri merusak Tembok Berlin. Peristiwa ini menjadi salah satu peristiwa berita mengesankan pada abad ke-20.

Pada tanggal 18 Maret 1990 pemilihan umum bebas pertama dan satu-satunya dalam sejarah Jerman Timur telah dilaksanakan. Pemerintahan yang dipilih diberi mandat utama untuk berunding dengan Jerman Barat masalah persatuan dan membubarkan dirinya sendiri. Seorang ahli ideologi ternama Jerman Timur dalam 1989, menyatakan "Polandia akan tetap menjadi Polandia meskipun komunisme runtuh, tetapi tanpa komunisme negara Jerman Timur tidak mempunyai alasan untuk tetap berdiri."[2]

Di bawah Perdana Menteri Lothar de Maizière, Jerman Timur berunding dengan Jerman Barat, Britania Raya, Perancis, Amerika Serikat dan Uni Soviet mengenai syarat-syarat untuk Penyatuan kembali Jerman. Karena keberatan Uni Soviet bahwa Jerman Timur ditarik menjadi anggota NATO, maka sebuah perjanjian dibuat bahwa Jerman yang bersatu boleh tetap menjadi anggota NATO, namun tentara NATO tidak boleh ditaruh di Jerman Timur. Selain itu Kanselir Helmut Kohl meyakinkan para pemimpin Perancis dan Britania Raya bahwa mereka tidak perlu khawatir bahwa sebuah Jerman yang bersatu akan mengancam mereka dengan berjanji bahwa sebuah Negara Jerman bersatu akan lebih berusaha berintegrasi dengan Uni Eropa.

Paralel dengan perundingan multilateral, rundingan bilateral antara pemerintahan Timur dan Barat berlangsung dan menuju pada penanda tangan perjanjian pada tanggal 18 Mei 1990 untuk Uni Ekonomi, Sosial dan Moneter yang berlaku mulai tanggal 1 Juli 1990. Pada tanggal 23 Agustus, Volkskammer (Parlemen Jerman Timur) mengesahkan tanggal 3 Oktober 1990 sebagai tanggal bergabungnya Jerman Timur dengan Jerman Barat.

Einigungsvertrag ("Perjanjian Persatuan") telah ditanda tangani pada tanggal 31 Agustus 1990 oleh wakil-wakil Jerman Barat dan Jerman Timur. Pada tanggal 12 September 1990 Perjanjian Penyelesaian Akhir yang Berkenaan dengan Negara Jerman ("Perjanjian Dua tambah Empat") telah ditandatangani dan secara resmi mendirikan ulang kedaulatan kedua-dua negara Jerman.
[sunting] Penyatuan kembali

Negara Jerman secara resmi dipersatukan kembali pada tanggal 3 Oktober 1990 ketika enam negara bagian Jerman Timur (Bundesländer); Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Sachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt, Thüringen, dan Berlin bersatu secara resmi bergabung dengan Republik Federal Jerman (Jerman Barat), memilih salah satu dari dua opsi yang diterapkan dalam Konstitusi Jerman Barat (Grundgesetz). Maka dengan masuknya secara resmi lima negara bagian Jerman yang kembali didirikan ke Jerman Barat sesuai Pasal 23, lalu wilayah di mana Grundgesetz (Undang-Undang Dasar) berlaku diperluas untuk memuat mereka. Alternatifnya ialah bahwa Jerman Timur bergabung secara keseluruhan dalam rangka persatuan resmi antara dua negara Jerman, yang lalu antara lain harus membuat Konstitusi baru bagi negara yang baru saja didirikan. Meski opsi yang dipilih lebih sederhana, hal ini telah menjadi alasan adanya sentimen-sentimen tertentu di Timur bahwa mereka telah "diduduki" atau "dianeksasi" oleh Republik Federal Jerman yang lama (Jerman Barat).

Untuk memudahkan proses ini dan untuk meyakinkan negara-negara lain, Jerman Barat membuat beberapa perubahan kepada "Undang-undang Dasar". Pasal 146 diubah sehingga Pasal 23 dari konstitusi yang berlaku bisa dipakai untuk Penyatuan kembali. Lalu, jika lima "negara bagian yang telah didirikan ulang" di Jerman Timur sudah bergabung, maka Undang-Undang Dasar bisa diubah lagi untuk menyatakan bahwa tidak ada daerah Jerman lainnya yang ada di luar wilayah negara kesatuan yang belum bergabung. Namun konstitusi ini bisa diubah lagi di masa depan dan hal ini masih memungkinkan diambilnya sebuah konstitusi lain di masa depan oleh bangsa Jerman.

Pada tanggal 14 November 1990 pemerintah Jerman menanda tangani sebuah perjanjian dengan Polandia yang menyangkut perbatasan mereka yang dikenal sebagai Perbatasan Oder-Neisse, dan demikian, melepaskan tuntutan mereka untuk Silesia, Pomerania, Danzig (Gdansk), dan Prusia Timur. Bulan berikut, pemilihan umum bebas pertama bagi seluruh rakyat Jerman semenjak tahun 1932, diadakan. Hasil pemilu ialah mayoritas yang bertambah besar bagi pemerintahan koalisi Helmut Kohl.
[sunting] Efek persatuan ulang
Di seantero mantan wilayah Jerman Timur ditemukan banyak fasilitas-fasilitas militer yang telah ditinggalkan. Barak Nedlitz dekat Potsdam, seperti dilihat pada bulan Agustus 2002, sedang dikembangkan kembali.

Biaya persatuan ulang telah menimbul suatu beban yang berat kepada ekonomi Jerman dan telah mengakibatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi Jerman menjadi tersendat-sendat dalam tahun-tahun terakhir ini. Biaya persatuan ulang diperkirakan berjumlah lebih dari € 15 trilyun (pernyataan Freie Universität Berlin) . Jumlah ini lebih besar daripada hutang negara Jerman.

Sebab utama untuk biaya yang sangat besar ini adalah lemahnya ekonomi Jerman Timur, khususnya jika diperbandingkan dengan Jerman Barat; lalu nilai tukar di antara mata uang Jerman Timur dan Jerman Barat yang secara artifisial ditinggikan demi alasan politik, dengan hasil Jerman Barat harus melunasi rekening ini.

Walaupun dilakukan investasi besar-besaran oleh Jerman Barat, banyak perusahaan Jerman Timur hancur ketika harus bersaing dengan Jerman Barat. Malah sampai sekarang, pemerintah Jerman memberikan lebih dari € 10 milyar demi perkembangan negara-negara bagian yang terletak di mantan Jerman Timur.

Selama tahun 1980-an, ekonomi kapitalis Jerman Barat menjadi makmur, sedangkan ekonomi komunis Jerman Timur merosot; sesudah itu, suplai barang-barang dan jasa ke Jerman Timur menegangkan sumber penghasilan Barat.

Industri yang dulu tidak perlu bersaing karena didukung oleh pemerintah Jerman Timur harus diswastanisasikan, seringkali hal ini menghasilkan kebangkrutan mereka.

Sebagai akibat daripada persatuan ulang, kebanyakan mantan daerah Jerman Timur telah kehilangan industrinya, menyebabkan suatu pengangguran yang bisa sebesar kira-kira 25 % di beberapa bagian daerah. Semenjak itu, ratusan ribu warga mantan Jerman Timur secara berkesinambung berhijrah ke wilayah barat untuk mencari pekerjaan. Hal ini menyebabkan wilayah timur kehilangan tenaga-tenaga kerja profesional.

Menurut Bank Sentral Jerman (Bundesbank) sebab dari banyak masalah di ekonomi Jerman sejatinya berakar pada persatuan ulang ini dan bukannya introduksi mata uang Euro pada tahun 2002 seperti dinyatakan oleh banyak ekonom[3].

racism in usa


Racism in the United States
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Racism in the United States has been a major issue ever since the colonial era and the slave era. Legally sanctioned racism imposed a heavy burden on Native Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Mexican Americans. White Americans were privileged by law in matters of literacy, immigration, voting rights, citizenship, land acquisition, and criminal procedure over periods of time extending from the 17th century to the 1960s. Many European ethnic groups, particularly American Jews, Irish Americans, and Eastern European and Southern European immigrants, as well as immigrants from elsewhere, suffered xenophobic exclusion and other forms of racism in American society.

Major racially structured institutions included slavery, Indian Wars, Native American reservations, segregation, residential schools (for Native Americans), and internment camps.[1] Formal racial discrimination was largely banned in the mid-20th century, and came to be perceived as socially unacceptable and/or morally repugnant as well, yet racial politics remain a major phenomenon. Historical racism continues to be reflected in socio-economic inequality.[2] Racial stratification continues to occur in employment, housing, education, lending, and government.

As in most countries, many people in the U.S. continue to have some prejudices against other races.[3][4][5] In the view of a network of scores of US civil rights and human rights organizations, "Discrimination permeates all aspects of life in the United States, and extends to all communities of color."[6] Discrimination against African Americans, Latin Americans, and Muslims is widely acknowledged.[7] Members of every major American ethnic minority have perceived racism in their dealings with other minority groups.[8][9]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 History by targeted racial group
o 1.1 Racism against Native Americans
+ 1.1.1 Discrimination, marginalization
+ 1.1.2 Native American owned slaves
+ 1.1.3 Assimilation efforts into American society
o 1.2 Racism against African Americans
+ 1.2.1 Slavery and emancipation
+ 1.2.2 Nadir of American race relations
+ 1.2.3 African Americans in recent decades
o 1.3 Discrimination and racism against Asian-Americans
o 1.4 Discrimination against Latin Americans
o 1.5 Antisemitism
o 1.6 Anti-European immigrant racism
o 1.7 Racism against European Americans
+ 1.7.1 White subgroups
+ 1.7.2 Anti-White crimes
o 1.8 Racism against Arab, Assyrian, Iranian, and Muslim Americans
+ 1.8.1 Racism against Iranians
* 2 History by region
o 2.1 West Coast racism
* 3 Racism as a factor in U.S. foreign policy
* 4 Conflicts between racial and ethnic minorities
o 4.1 Argument against minority-minority racism
o 4.2 African and Mexican American gang violence
o 4.3 New Immigrant Africans and African Americans
o 4.4 Strife, conflict and reconciliation
* 5 Stereotypes and prejudice
o 5.1 Stereotypical images in the entertainment media
o 5.2 Contemporary images and protests
o 5.3 Congressional hearing
* 6 Segregation and integration
o 6.1 History
o 6.2 Contemporary issues
o 6.3 Laws regarding race
o 6.4 Court cases regarding race
* 7 Institutional racism
o 7.1 Immigration
o 7.2 Wealth creation
o 7.3 Impact on health
o 7.4 Health care inequality
* 8 Political issues
o 8.1 Affirmative action
o 8.2 Hate crimes
* 9 Current hate groups
* 10 Anti-racism
* 11 Further reading
* 12 See also
* 13 External links
* 14 References

[edit] History by targeted racial group
[edit] Racism against Native Americans
Members of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation in Oklahoma around 1877. Notice the European and African ancestry members. The Creek were originally from the Alabama region.

Native Americans, who have lived on the North American continent for at least 20,000 years,[10] had an enormously complex impact on American history and racial relations. During the colonial and independent periods, a long series of conflicts were waged, with the primary objective of obtaining resources of Native Americans. Through wars, massacres, forced displacement (such as in the Trail of Tears), and the imposition of treaties, land was taken and numerous hardships imposed. In 1540 AD, the first racial strife was with Spaniard Hernando de Soto's expedition who enslaved and murdered in many New World communities. In the early 18th century, the English had enslaved nearly 800 Choctaws.[11] After the creation of the United States, the idea of Indian removal gained momentum. However, some Native Americans chose or were allowed to remain and avoided removal whereafter they were subjected to racist institutions in their ancestral homeland. The Choctaws in Mississippi described their situation in 1849, "we have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died."[12] Joseph B. Cobb, who moved to Mississippi from Georgia, described Choctaws as having "no nobility or virtue at all," and in some respect he found blacks, especially native Africans, more interesting and admirable, the red man's superior in every way. The Choctaw and Chickasaw, the tribes he knew best, were beneath contempt, that is, even worse than black slaves.[13]

Ideological expansionist justification (Manifest Destiny) included stereotyped perceptions of all Native Americans as "merciless Indian savages" (as described in the United States Declaration of Independence) despite successful American efforts at civilization as proven with the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Creek, and Choctaw. An egregious attempt occurred with the California gold rush, the first two years of which saw the deaths of thousands of Native Americans. Under Mexican rule in California, Indians were subjected to de facto enslavement under a system of peonage. While in 1850, California formally entered the Union as a free state, with respect to the issue of slavery, the practice of Indian indentured servitude was not outlawed by the California Legislature until 1863.[14]

Military and civil resistance by Native Americans has been a constant feature of American history. So too have a variety of debates around issues of sovereignty, the upholding of treaty provisions, and the civil rights of Native Americans under U.S. law.
[edit] Discrimination, marginalization

Once their territories were incorporated into the United States, surviving Native Americans were denied equality before the law and often treated as wards of the state.[15] Many Native Americans were relegated to reservations—constituting just 4% of U.S. territory—and the treaties signed with them violated. Tens of thousands of American Indians and Alaska Natives were forced to attend a residential school system which sought to reeducate them in white settler American values, culture and economy, to "kill the Indian, save[ing] the man."[16]

Further dispossession continued through concessions for industries such as oil, mining and timber and through division of land through legislation such as the Allotment Act. These concessions have raised problems of consent, exploitation of low royalty rates, environmental injustice, and gross mismanagement of funds held in trust, resulting in the loss of $10–40 billion.[17] The Worldwatch Institute notes that 317 reservations are threatened by environmental hazards, while Western Shoshone land has been subjected to more than 1,000 nuclear explosions.[18]
[edit] Native American owned slaves

Before removal and "under white influence", some Southern Native American tribes owned African American slaves. The Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw were known to have had slaves. However, "unlike white slaveholders, they encouraged the young black slaves to attend the schools opened for the Indian children. The children they had with black women and men were raised in practical equality with their full blooded offspring." [19] Unlike the United States before Emancipation, African Americans (and European Americans) were allowed to become citizens of their respective Native American nations; however, it was rare for African Americans to become citizens of Native American nations. For example, a small number of "Free People of Color" lived in many Native American nations as Cherokee, Choctaw, or Creek citizens.[20]
[edit] Assimilation efforts into American society
Benjamin Hawkins, seen here on his plantation, teaches Creek Native Americans how to use European technology. Painted in 1805.

George Washington and Henry Knox believed that Native Americans were equals but that their society was inferior.[citation needed] The government appointed agents, like Benjamin Hawkins, to live among the Native Americans and to teach them, through example and instruction, how to live like whites.[21] Washington formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process.[22] Washington had a six-point plan for civilization which included,

1. impartial justice toward Native Americans
2. regulated buying of Native American lands
3. promotion of commerce
4. promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Native American society
5. presidential authority to give presents
6. punishing those who violated Native American rights.[23]

The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans. Prior to the passage of the act, nearly two-thirds of Native Americans were already U.S. citizens.[24] The earliest recorded date of Native Americans becoming U.S. citizens was in 1831 when the Mississippi Choctaw became citizens after the United States Legislature ratified the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. Under article XIV of that treaty, any Choctaw who elected not to move to Native American Territory could become an American citizen when he registered and if he stayed on designated lands for five years after treaty ratification. Citizenship could also be obtained by:

1. Treaty Provision (as with the Mississippi Choctaw)
2. Allotment under the Act of February 8, 1887
3. Issuance of Patent in Fee Simple
4. Adopting Habits of Civilized Life
5. Minor Children
6. Citizenship by Birth
7. Becoming Soldiers and Sailors in the U.S. Armed Forces
8. Marriage
9. Special Act of Congress.

“ Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That all noncitizen Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States be, and they are hereby, declared to be citizens of the United States: Provided, That the granting of such citizenship shall not in any manner impair or otherwise affect the right of any Native American to tribal or other property. ”

—-Indian Citizenship Act of 1924

While formal equality has been legally granted, American Indians, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders remain among the most economically disadvantaged groups in the country, and according to National mental health studies, American Indians as a group tend to suffer from high levels of alcoholism, depression and suicide.[25]
[edit] Racism against African Americans
Main article: African American history

Perhaps the most prominent and notable form of American racism (other than imperialism against Native Americans) began with the institution of slavery, during which Africans were enslaved and treated as property. Prior to the institution of slavery, early African and non-white immigrants to the Colonies had been regarded with equal status, serving as sharecroppers alongside whites. After the institution of slavery the status of Africans was stigmatized, and this stigma was the basis for the more virulent anti-African racism that persisted until the present.[26]
[edit] Slavery and emancipation
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In colonial America, before slavery became completely based on racial lines, thousands of African slaves served European colonists, alongside other Europeans serving a term of indentured servitude.[27] In some cases for African slaves, a term of service meant freedom and a land grant afterward, but these were rarely awarded, and few former slaves became landowners this way.[citation needed] In a precursor to the American Revolution, Nathaniel Bacon led a revolt in 1676 against the Governor of Virginia and the system of exploitation he represented: exploitation of poorer colonists by the increasingly wealthy landowners where poorer people, regardless of skin color, fought side by side. However, Bacon died, probably of dysentery; hundreds of participants in the revolt were lured to disarm by a promised amnesty; and the revolt lost steam.[28]

Slaves were primarily used for agricultural labor, notably in the production of cotton and tobacco. Black slavery in the Northeast was common until the early 19th century, when many Northeastern states abolished slavery. Slaves were used as a labor force in agricultural production, shipyards, docks, and as domestic servants. In both regions, only the wealthiest Americans owned slaves.[citation needed] In contrast, poor whites recognized that slavery devalued their own labor. The social rift along color lines soon became ingrained in every aspect of colonial American culture.[citation needed] Approximately one Southern family in four held slaves prior to war. According to the 1860 U.S. census, there were about 385,000 slaveowners out of approximately 1.5 million white families.[29]

In the early part of the 19th century, a variety of organizations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom; some endorsed colonization, while others advocated emigration. During the 1820s and 1830s the American Colonization Society (A.C.S.) was the primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa,[30] and in 1821 the A.C.S. established the colony of Liberia, assisting thousands of former African-American slaves and free black people (with legislated limits) to move there from the United States. The colonization effort resulted from a mixture of motives with its founder Henry Clay stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off".[31]

Although the Constitution had banned the importation of new African slaves in 1808, and in 1820 slave trade was equated with piracy, punishable by death,[32] the practice of chattel slavery still existed for the next half century. All slaves in only the areas of the Confederate States of America that were not under direct control of the United States government were declared free by the Emancipation Proclamation, which was issued on January 1, 1863 by President Abraham Lincoln.[33] It should be noted that the Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to areas loyal to, or controlled by, the Union, thus the document only freed slaves where the Union still had not regained the legitimacy to do so. Slavery was not actually abolished in the United States until the passage of the 13th Amendment which was declared ratified on December 6, 1865.[34]

About 4 million black slaves were freed in 1865. Ninety-five percent of blacks lived in the South, comprising one third of the population there as opposed to one percent of the population of the North. Consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in the North.[35] Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the civil war, including 6% in the North and an extraordinary 18% in the South.[36] Despite this, post-emancipation America was not free from racism; discriminatory practices continued in the United States with the existence of Jim Crow laws, educational disparities and widespread criminal acts against people of color.[citation needed]
[edit] Nadir of American race relations
Main articles: Nadir of American race relations and Mass racial violence in the United States
The mob-style lynching of Will James, Cairo, Illinois, 1909.

The new century saw a hardening of institutionalized racism and legal discrimination against citizens of African descent in the United States. Although technically able to vote, poll taxes, acts of terror (often perpetuated by groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, founded in the Reconstruction South), and discriminatory laws such as grandfather clauses kept black Americans disenfranchised particularly in the South but also nationwide following the Hayes election at the end of the Reconstruction era in 1877. In response to de jure racism, protest and lobbyist groups emerged, most notably, the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909.

This time period is sometimes referred to as the nadir of American race relations because racism in the United States was worse during this time than at any period before or since. Segregation, racial discrimination, and expressions of white supremacy all increased. So did anti-black violence, including lynchings and race riots.

In addition, racism which had been viewed primarily as a problem in the Southern states, burst onto the national consciousness following the Great Migration, the relocation of millions of African Americans from their roots in the Southern states to the industrial centers of the North after World War I, particularly in cities such as Boston, Chicago, and New York (Harlem). In northern cities, racial tensions exploded, most violently in Chicago, and lynchings--mob-directed hangings, usually racially motivated—increased dramatically in the 1920s. As a member of the Princeton chapter of the NAACP, Albert Einstein corresponded with W. E. B. Du Bois, and in 1946 Einstein called racism America's "worst disease".[37][38]
[edit] African Americans in recent decades

While substantial gains were made in the succeeding decades through middle class advancement and public employment, black poverty and lack of education[39] deepened in the context of de-industrialization.[40] Prejudice, discrimination, and institutional racism (see below) continued to affect African Americans.

From 1981 to 1997, the United States Department of Agriculture discriminated against tens of thousands of African American farmers, denying loans provided to white farmers in similar circumstances. The discrimination was the subject of the Pigford v. Glickman lawsuit brought by members of the National Black Farmers Association, which resulted in two settlement agreements of $1.25 billion in 1999 and of $1.15 billion in 2009.[41]

Many cite the 2008 United States presidential election as a step forward in race relations: White Americans played a role in electing Barack Obama, the country's first black president.[42] However, according to exit polls, over sixty percent of white Americans voted for McCain.[citation needed] Racial divisions persisted throughout the election; wide margins of Black voters gave Obama an edge during the presidential primary, where 8 out of 10 African-Americans voted for him in the primaries, and an MSNBC poll showed that race was a key factor in whether a candidate was perceived as being ready for office. In South Carolina, for instance,"Whites were far likelier to name Clinton than Obama as being most qualified to be commander in chief, likeliest to unite the country and most apt to capture the White House in November. Blacks named Obama over Clinton by even stronger margins — two- and three-to one — in all three areas.".[43]
[edit] Discrimination and racism against Asian-Americans
A Sinophobic cartoon called "Yellow terror" appearing in the United States in 1899
See also: Sinophobia, Chinese American history, Yellow Peril, and Turban Tide and Hindoo Invasion

In the Pacific States, racism was primarily directed against the resident Asian immigrants. Several immigration laws discriminated against the Asians, and at different points the ethnic Chinese or other groups were banned from entering the United States.[44] Nonwhites were prohibited from testifying against whites, a prohibition extended to the Chinese by People v. Hall.[45] The Chinese were often subject to harder labor on the First Transcontinental Railroad and often performed the more dangerous tasks such as using dynamite to make pathways through the mountains.[46] The San Francisco Vigilance Movement, although ostensibly a response to crime and corruption, also systematically victimized Irish immigrants, and later this was transformed into mob violence against Chinese immigrants.[citation needed]. Anti-Chinese sentiment was also rife in early Los Angeles, culminating in a notorious 1871 riot in which a mob comprising every other nationality then resident in the city.[47] In the ensuing inquests and trials, all the perpetrators either were acquitted, or received only light punishments for lesser offenses,[48] because the testimony of Chinese witnesses was either completely inadmissible, or else considered less credible than that of others. Legal discrimination of Asian minorities was furthered with the passages of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which banned the entrance of virtually all ethnic Chinese immigrants into the United States until 1943.

During World War II, the United States created internment camps for Japanese American citizens in fear that they would be used as spies for the Japanese.[49] Currently implemented immigration laws are still largely plagued with national origin-based quotas that is unfavorable to Asian countries due to large populations and historically low U.S. immigration rates.[2]
[edit] Discrimination against Latin Americans

Americans of Latin American ancestry (often categorized as "Hispanic") come from a wide variety of racial and ethnic backgrounds. Latinos are not all distinguishable as a racial minority.

After the Mexican-American War (1846–1848), the U.S. annexed much of the current Southwestern region from Mexico. Mexicans residing in that territory found themselves subject to discrimination. It is estimated that at least 597 Mexicans were lynched between 1848 and 1928 (this is a conservative estimate due to lack of records in many reported lynchings). Mexicans were lynched at a rate of 27.4 per 100,000 of population between 1880 and 1930. This statistic is second only to that of the African American community during that period, which suffered an average of 37.1 per 100,000 population.[50] Between 1848 to 1879, Mexicans were lynched at an unprecedented rate of 473 per 100,000 of population.[51]

During The Great Depression, the U.S. government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation program which was intended to encourage Mexican immigrants to voluntarily return to Mexico, however, many were forcibly removed against their will. In total, up to one million persons of Mexican ancestry were deported, approximately 60 percent those individuals were actually U.S. citizens.[52]

The Zoot Suit Riots were vivid incidents of racial violence against Latinos (e.g. Mexican-Americans) in Los Angeles in 1943. Naval servicemen stationed in a Latino neighborhood conflicted with youth in the dense neighborhood. Frequent confrontations between small groups and individuals had intensified into several days of non-stop rioting. Large mobs of servicemen would enter civilian quarters looking to attack Mexican American youths, some of whom were wearing zoot suits, a distinctive exaggerated fashion popular among that group.[53] The disturbances continued unchecked, and even assisted, by the local police for several days before base commanders declared downtown Los Angeles and Mexican American neighborhoods off-limits to servicemen.[54]

Many public institutions, businesses, and homeowners associations had official policies to exclude Mexican Americans. School children of Mexican American descent were subject to racial segregation in the public school system. In many counties, Mexican Americans were excluded from serving as jurors in court cases, especially in those that involved a Mexican American defendant. In many areas across the Southwest, they lived in separate residential areas, due to laws and real estate company policies.[55][56][57][58]

During the 1960s, Mexican American youth rallied behind civil rights causes and launched the Chicano Movement.
[edit] Antisemitism
Main article: Antisemitism in the United States

Antisemitism has also played a role in America. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, hundreds of thousands of Ashkenazi Jews were escaping the pogroms of Russia and Eastern Europe. They boarded boats from ports on the Baltic Sea and in Northern Germany, and largely arrived at Ellis Island, New York.[59]

It is thought by Leo Rosten, in his book, 'The Joys of Yiddish', that as soon as they left the boat, they were subject to racism from the port immigration authorities. The derogatory term 'kike' was adopted when referring to Jews (because they often could not write so they may have signed their immigration papers with circles - or kikel in Yiddish).[60]

From the 1910s, the Southern Jewish communities were attacked by the Ku Klux Klan, who objected to Jewish immigration, and often used 'The Jewish Banker' in their propaganda. In 1915, Texas-born, New York Jew Leo Frank was lynched by the newly re-formed Klan, after being convicted of rape and sentenced to death (his punishment was commuted to life imprisonment).[61]

The events in Nazi Germany also attracted attention from America. Jewish lobbying for intervention in Europe drew opposition from the isolationists, amongst whom was Father Charles Coughlin, a well known radio priest, who was known to be critical of Jews, believing that they were leading America into the war.[62] He preached in weekly, overtly anti-Semitic sermons and, from 1936, began publication of a newspaper, Social Justice, in which he printed anti-Semitic accusations such as The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.[62]

A number of Jewish organizations, Christian organizations, Muslim organizations, and academics consider the Nation of Islam to be anti-Semitic. Specifically, they claim that the Nation of Islam has engaged in revisionist and antisemitic interpretations of the Holocaust and exaggerates the role of Jews in the African slave trade.[63] The Jewish Anti-Defamation League (ADL) alleges that NOI Health Minister, Abdul Alim Muhammad, has accused Jewish doctors of injecting blacks with the AIDS virus,[64] an allegation that Dr. Abdul Alim Muhammad has denied.
[edit] Anti-European immigrant racism

Main Article: Anti-Irish racism on Irish-Americans

Various non-Jewish European-American immigrant groups have been subject to discrimination either on the basis of their immigrant status (known as "Nativism") or on the basis of their ethnicities (country of origin).
Philadelphia Nativist Riots.
New York Times, 1854 ad, reading "No Irish need apply."

In the 19th century, this was particularly true of anti-Irish prejudice, which was partly anti-Catholic sentiment, partly anti-Irish as an ethnicity. This was especially true for Irish Catholics who immigrated to the U.S. in the mid-19th century; the large number of Irish (both Catholic and Protestant) who settled in America in the 18th century had largely (but not entirely) escaped such discimination and eventually blended into the American white population.

The 20th century saw racism against immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe (notably Italian-Americans and Polish Americans), partly from anti-Catholic sentiment (as against Irish-Americans), and partly from Nordicism, which considered Southern Europeans and Eastern Europeans inferior – see Nordicism in the USA.
“ Biological laws tell us that certain divergent people will not mix or blend. The Nordics propagate themselves successfully. With other races, the outcome shows deterioration on both sides. ”

—Future US president Calvin Coolidge, 1921.[65]

Nordicism lead to the reduction in Southern European and Eastern European immigrants in the National Origins Formula of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924, whose goal was to maintain the status quo distribution of ethnicity by limiting immigration in proportion to existing populations. This reduced the inflow from the average prior to 1921 of 176,983 from Northern and Western Europe, and 685,531 for other countries, principally Southern and Eastern Europe, to a 1924 level of 140,999 for Northern and Western Europe, and 21,847 for other countries, principally Southern and Eastern Europe (from a 1:3.9 ratio to a 6.4:1 ratio).

There was also racism against German-Americans and Italian-Americans due to these being enemy countries in World War I (Germany) and World War II (Germany and Italy). This resulted in a sharp decrease in German-American ethnic identity and a sharp decrease in the use of German in the United States following WWI, which had hitherto been significant, and to German American internment and Italian American internment during WWII; see also World War I anti-German sentiment.

Specific European-American ethnicities significantly diminished as a political issue in the 1930s, being replaced by a bi-racialism of Black/White, as described and predicted by Lothrop Stoddard, due to numerous causes. The National Origins Formula significantly reduced inflows of non-Nordic ethnicities; the Great Migration (of African-Americans out of the South) displaced anti-White immigrant racism with anti-Black racism; and the Great Depression brought economic concerns to the fore.

Anti-Catholic sentiment remained evident in the presidential campaign of John F. Kennedy, who nevertheless went on to become the US's first Catholic (and indeed non-Protestant) president.

In the 1960s and 1970s, ethnic jokes most notably Jew Jokes and Polish Jokes were popular, but are considered offensive to people of Irish, Italian, Polish, Jewish and other White ethnic descent.[citation needed]
[edit] Racism against European Americans
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In addition to racism against European immigrants on the basis of their immigrant status or country of origin, there has also been racism against European Americans on the basis of their ethnicity, regardless of country of origin. A general anti-white slur is "cracker".

Some policies adopted as affirmative action, such as racial quotas or gender quotas for collegiate admission, have been criticised as a form of "reverse discrimination".[66] Affirmative action is sometimes called "reverse racism" by its opponents;[67] some sociologists argue that the term "racism" can only be applied to structured systems of racial supremacy, and that opponents would more correctly call affirmative action "reverse discrimination."[68]

In Hawai‘i, there is an alleged tradition dating at least to the 1950s of the last day of school called "Kill Haole Day", "Haole" originally referring to foreigners, and more generally to white people. There is a custom, reported in Cleveland, Ohio in 2003, of May Day (May 1) being "Beat Up a White Kid Day."
[edit] White subgroups

Certain subgroups of White Americans, while not identifying as separate races (often identifying as having "American ethnicity"), have distinct heritages and experience discrimination and low socio-economic status as an ethnicity.

Notably, poor, predominantly Southern and rural, whites, particularly in Appalachia and the Ozarks, are referred to by a number of slurs, notably white trash, trailer trash, cracker, redneck, and hillbilly (this latter having more mixed usage), with connotations of being stupid, uncultured, uneducated and strange. Ethnically, these groups are largely referred to as Scotch-Irish American, though the ethnic groups of Appalachia are more accurately described as being primarily (90%) from the Anglo-Scottish border country, most, but not all, via the Plantation of Ulster in Northern Ireland; they are also of German and Welsh ancestry.

The status of poor rural whites has often been compared to that of blacks, being also seen as suffering from slavery (because unable to compete with the free labor of slaves). Such descriptions date to the 19th century, as is Uncle Tom's Cabin, and poor rural whites continue to lag on numerous socio-economic indicators (health, income, and the like) – see social and economic stratification in Appalachia.

Other white subgroups known to encountered discrimination, a subject of offensive humor and jokes, and negative stereotypes are Mormons due to their religion (see Mormonism), French-Canadians due to their mother language being French and even blond jokes esp. towards blonde women (see sexism) of someone is unintelligent is based on a person's hair color.[citation needed]
[edit] Anti-White crimes
Main article: Hate crimes against white people

One series of unprovoked crimes that specifically targeted White Americans is the Zebra murders that occurred in San Francisco between 1973 and 1974. The Zebra murders were carried out by a group known as Death Angels (a radical splinter group of the Nation of Islam) that intended to kill whites to spread terror and earn favor and status within their sect.

Another series of crimes that specifically targeted whites is the 2002 Beltway sniper attacks which planned to kill six whites a day for 30 days,[69] and resulted in 10 deaths and 3 critical injuries. One of the snipers Lee Boyd Malvo testified that John Allen Muhammad was driven by hatred of America because of its "slavery, hypocrisy and foreign policy" and his belief that "the white man is the devil."

According to the Southern Poverty Law Center, national anti-white hate groups that are currently active include Nation of Islam and New Black Panther Party.

According to FBI statistics from 1995–2002, whites are the second most targeted group for racially motivated hate crime in New York City.[70]
[edit] Racism against Arab, Assyrian, Iranian, and Muslim Americans
See also: Anti-Arabism and Islamophobia
An Assyrian church vandalized in Detroit (2007). Assyrians, although not Arabs and mostly Christians, often face backlash in the US for their Middle Eastern background.[71]

People of Middle East and South Asian descent historically occupied an ambiguous racial status in the United States. Middle East, Caucasus, and South Asian immigrants were among those who sued in the late 19th and early 20th century to determine whether they were "white" immigrants as required by naturalization law. By 1923, courts had vindicated a "common-knowledge" standard, concluding that "scientific evidence", including the notion of a "Caucasian race" including Arabs and many South Asians, was incoherent. Legal scholar John Tehranian argues that in reality this was a "performance-based" standard, relating to religious practices, education, intermarriage and a community's role in the United States.[72] Recent studies have found that while official parameters encompass Arabs as part of the White American racial category, many Arab Americans from places other than the Levant feel they are not white and are not perceived as white by American society."[73]

Racism against Arab Americans[74] and racialized Islamophobia against Muslims has risen concomitantly with tensions between the American government and the Arab world.[75] Following the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, discrimination and racialized violence has markedly increased against Arab Americans and many other religious and cultural groups.[76] Scholars, including Sunaina Maira and Evelyn Alsultany, argue that in the post-September 11 climate, Muslim Americans have been racialized within American society, although the markers of this racialization are cultural, political, and religious rather than phenotypic.[77][78]

Iraqis in particular were demonized which led to hatred towards Arabs and Iranians living in the United States and elsewhere in the western world.[79][80] There have been attacks against Arabs not only on the basis of their religion (Islam), but also on the basis of their ethnicity; numerous Christian Arabs have been attacked based on their appearances.[81] In addition, non-Arab peoples (Iranians, Assyrians, Yezidis, Kurds) who are mistaken for Arabs because of perceived "similarities in appearance" have been collateral victims of anti-Arabism.

Iranian people (who constitute a different ethnicity than Arabs), as well as South Asians of different ethnic/religious backgrounds (Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs) have been stereotyped as "Arabs". The case of Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh who was murdered at a Phoenix gas station by a white supremacist for "looking like an Arab terrorist" (because of the turban that is a requirement of Sikhism), as well as that of Hindus being attacked for "being Muslims" have achieved prominence and criticism following the September 11 attacks.[82][83]

Those of Middle Eastern decent who are in the United States military face racism from fellow soldiers. Army Spc Zachari Klawonn endured numerous instances of racism during his enlistment at Fort Hood, Texas. During his basic training he was made to put cloth around his head and play the role a terrorist. His fellow soldiers had to take him down to the ground and draw guns on him. He was also called things such as "raghead", "sand monkey", and "Zachari bin Laden"."[84]
[edit] Racism against Iranians
See also: Anti-Iranian sentiment
A man holding a sign that reads "deport all Iranians" and "get the hell out of my country" during a protest of the Iran hostage crisis in Washington, D.C. in 1979.

The November 1979 Iranian hostage crisis of the U.S. embassy in Tehran precipitated a wave of anti-Iranian sentiment in the United States, directed both against the new Islamic regime and Iranian nationals and immigrants. Even though such sentiments gradually declined after the release of the hostages at the start of 1981, they sometimes flare up. In response, some Iranian immigrants to the U.S. have distanced themselves from their nationality and instead identify primarily on the basis of their ethnic or religious affiliations.[85]

Ann Coulter called Iranians "ragheads."[86] Brent Scowcroft called the Iranian people "rug merchants."[87]

Since the 1980s and especially since the 1990s Hollywood's depiction of Iranians has gradually shown signs of vilifying Iranians.[88] Hollywood network productions such as 24,[89] John Doe, On Wings of Eagles (1986),[90] Escape From Iran: The Canadian Caper (1981),[91] and JAG almost regularly host Persian speaking villains in their storylines. On May 9, 1997, CBS aired an episode of JAG in which several Hamas terrorists take a Washington hospital under siege. According to the film, they spoke in fluent "Persian", not "Arabic".[citation needed]

Some of Hollywood's "stereotypical"[92] and anti-Iranian movies include: The Peacemaker (in which a character, apparently without any context, says "fuck Iran"), The Hitman (in which several mobs join together to demolish an Iranian mob operating in Canada), MadHouse (partially centering upon a wealthy Iranian who is in the process of divorcing his American wife. In one scene, the wife, speaking to her Iranian husband utters "you goddamn towel heads, sand rats"), The Naked Gun, Under Siege, The Delta Force, Into the Night, Down and Out in Beverly Hills, Threads, The Final Options, and Silver Bears.
[edit] History by region

In the popular imagination, racism is particularly associated with the American South, with its legacy of slavery and Jim Crow. However, all regions of the United States have exhibited racism in various forms and at various times. For example, the Great Migration of African Americans (1910–1930) from the South to the Northeast, Midwest, and West, led to increased Black/White contact, racism, and segregation in the destinations.
[edit] West Coast racism

The Pacific and Western states were often portrayed to those on the East Coast as more liberal in terms of race relations in the 1960s and 1970s, but California legally allowed racial segregation of public facilities until the 1950s and other forms of racism were felt there as well.

Over the winter spanning 1929 and 1930, anti-Filipino racism exploded in the Central Coast area surrounding Watsonville over labor tensions and general xenophobia. Filipino farm workers were terrorized for "taking jobs from whites," and for mixing with white women; in California, and many states, Filipinos were barred from marrying White Americans (a group which included Hispanic Americans). Violence was done against Filipinos, some resulting in deaths, and a Filipino establishment was even dynamited. A race war broke out in the Bay Area, with roving gangs of whites pulling Filipinos from their homes and dwellings, until the violence subsided. As a result of the riots, California's attitude changed towards importing cheaper Asian labor, ironically moving towards utilizing cheaper Mexican labor instead.[93]
See also: History of Oregon Racial Discrimination

A variety of laws were enacted to prevent African American migration to the Pacific Northwest. While slavery was criminalized in the Oregon Territory in 1844, a so-called "lash law" subjected blacks found guilty of violating the law to whippings—no less than 20 and no more than 39 strokes of the lash—every six months "until he or she shall quit the territory." An exclusion law, barring African Americans from entering the territory was passed in 1847, repealed in 1854, and added to the new Oregon state constitution in 1857. While African Americans have been present at some level since 1805, the demographic reverberations of these laws remain today.[94]
[edit] Racism as a factor in U.S. foreign policy

The earliest decades of expansionist United States foreign policy making was often accompanied by racialist ideological justifications. While pursuing a series of expansionist wars (see "Racism against Native Americans" above), American leaders embraced an ideology of white racial supremacy. George Washington predicted at the end of the U.S. Revolutionary War, “The gradual extension of our settlements will as certainly cause the savage, as the wolf, to retire; both being beasts of prey, tho' they differ in shape."[95] The successful slave revolution in Haiti alarmed the United States leadership, and the country refused diplomatic recognition for decades. The United States conquest of Florida and the Seminole Wars were fought in part to confront the danger of "mingled hordes of lawless Indians and negroes," in the words of President John Quincy Adams.[96]

Early 20th-century President Theodore Roosevelt declared, "The most ultimately righteous of all wars is a war with savages" and openly spoke of cementing the rule of "dominant world races."[96] In line with the concepts of the "Manifest Destiny" of white Anglo-Americans to conquer lands inhabited by "inferior" races of Native Americans and Mexicans, and the "White Man's Burden" of Europeans' obligation to introduce civilization to the "primitive" people of Africa, Asia and the Pacific, American foreign policy in the early 20th century had racial overtones of a "superior" race destined to rule the world.

Critics such as Gore Vidal and Noam Chomsky have suggested that racism has played a significant role in U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East and its treatment of the Arabs. Various critics have suggested that racism along with strategic and financial interests motivated the Bush Administration to attack Iraq even though the Baathist regime of Saddam Hussein did not possess weapons of mass destruction nor had any ties to Al Qaida.[97][98][99] On the other hand, some scholars believe that the United States has softened racial restrictions based on foreign policy concerns. For example, Congress eliminated racial bars on Asian immigration during World War II and the Vietnam War to recognize American allies.[100] When the Supreme Court decided Brown v. Board of Education, the government argued that the Supreme Court should rule against racial segregation to counter Communist propaganda and improve America's image overseas.[101]
[edit] Conflicts between racial and ethnic minorities
[edit] Argument against minority-minority racism

Minority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of power in society. Some theories of racism insist that racism can only exist in the context of social power to impose it upon others.[102]
[edit] African and Mexican American gang violence

There has been ongoing violence between African American and Mexican American gangs, particularly in Southern California.[103][104][105][106] There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against Mexican Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by African Americans, and vice versa.[107][108] According to gang experts and law enforcement agents, a longstanding race war between the Mexican Mafia and the Black Guerilla Family, a rival African American prison gang, has generated such intense racial hatred among Mexican Mafia leaders, or shot callers, that they have issued a "green light" on all blacks. This amounts to a standing authorization for Latino gang members to prove their mettle by terrorizing or even murdering any blacks sighted in a neighborhood claimed by a gang loyal to the Mexican Mafia.[3] There have been several significant riots in California prisons where Mexican American inmates and African Americans have targeted each other particularly, based on racial reasons.[109][110]
[edit] New Immigrant Africans and African Americans

The rapid growth in African immigrants has come into conflict with American blacks. Interaction and cooperation between African immigrants and black Americans are, ironically, debatable. One can argue that racial discrimination and cooperation is not ordinarily based on color of skin but more on shared common, cultural experiences, and beliefs.[111][112]
[edit] Strife, conflict and reconciliation
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The U.S. has long had experienced conflict and reconciliation between ethnic minority groups.

Historians point out after a period of conflict, ethnic and racial groups can band together in solidarity. For example, the competing Irish-American and Italian-American groups once held animosity against each other in the early 20th century, would later merge and also with Polish-Americans, German-Americans and French-Canadians in the U.S. because of the commonality as "ethnics" and Roman Catholics in a primarily Protestant Anglo America by the 1940s and '50s. The modern American consciousness on race will consider descendants of European ethnic groups assimilated to become part of the larger "White American" group.

In the 1960s & '70s, African-American and Puerto Rican political activism banded together to battle the common problems of racial discrimination, poverty and underpresentation in many urban areas across the US like in New York City. Also to note there was substantial intermarriage between the newly-arrived Indian American, later came the Filipino and Hispanic communities in California under similar working conditions and shared cultural values in the 1920s (see Punjabi Mexican American).

The current-day social melange of "minorities" and "people of color" echoes the previous experience of European ethnic groups' sense of "otherness" about 2 or 3 generations ago.
[edit] Stereotypes and prejudice
Wiki letter w cropped.svg This section requires expansion.
This racist postcard from the 1900s shows the casual denigration of black women. It states "I know you're not particular to a fault / Though I'm not sure you'll never be sued for assault / You're so fond of women that even a wench / Attracts your gross fancy despite her strong stench"
[edit] Stereotypical images in the entertainment media
See also: Stereotypes of African Americans, Stereotypes of East Asians in the Western world, and Stereotypes of Native Americans

Popular culture (songs, theater) for European American audiences in the 19th century created and perpetuated negative stereotypes of African Americans. One key symbol of racism against African Americans was the use of blackface. Directly related to this was the institution of minstrelsy. Other stereotypes of African Americans included the fat, dark-skinned "mammy" and the irrational, hypersexual male "buck".

Other stereotypes include the portrayal of East Asians as very small people with huge front teeth and the portrayal of Native Americans as dangerous savages.
[edit] Contemporary images and protests

Increasing numbers of African-American activists have asserted that rap music videos utilize African-American performers commonly enacting tropes of scantily clothed women and men as thugs or pimps. Church organized groups have protested outside the residence of Phillipe Dauman (Upper East Side (New York, NY)) (president and chief executive officer of Viacom) and the residence of Debra L. Lee (Northwest Washington DC) (chairman and chief executive of Black Entertainment Television, a unit of Viacom). Rev. Donald Coates, leader of a protest organization formed around the issue of the videos, "Enough is Enough!" said, “In the wake of the Imus affair, I began to think that the African-American community must be consistent in its outrage.” The Clifton, Maryland minister has also said, “Why are these corporations making these images normative and mainstream?” ... “I can talk about this in the church until I am blue in the face, but we need to take it outside.” The NAACP and the National Congress of Black Women also have called for the reform of images on videos and on television. Julian Bond said that in a segregated society, people get their impressions of other groups from what they see in videos and what they hear in music.[113][114][115][116]

In a similar vein, activists protested against the BET show, Hot Ghetto Mess, which satirizes the culture of working-class African-Americans. The protests resulted in the change of the television show name to We Got to Do Better.[113]
[edit] Congressional hearing

In September, 2007 Rep. Bobby Rush of Illinois initiated a Congressional hearing on African-American images in the media, “From Imus to Industry: The Business of Stereotypes and Degrading Images.”[113]
[edit] Segregation and integration
Main article: Racial segregation in the United States
[edit] History

The Jim Crow Laws were state and local laws enacted in the Southern and border states of the United States and enforced between 1876 and 1965. They mandated "separate but equal" status for black Americans. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were almost always inferior to those provided to white Americans. The most important laws required that public schools, public places and public transportation, like trains and buses, have separate facilities for whites and blacks. (These Jim Crow Laws were separate from the 1800-66 Black Codes, which had restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans.) State-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education. Generally, the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act; none were in effect at the end of the 1960s.

Segregation continued even after the demise of the Jim Crow laws. Data on house prices and attitudes toward integration from suggest that in the mid-20th century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by whites to exclude blacks from their neighborhoods.[117] Segregation also took the form of redlining, the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access to jobs,[118] access to health care,[119] or even supermarkets[120] to residents in certain, often racially determined,[121] areas. Although in the United States informal discrimination and segregation have always existed, the practice called "redlining" began with the National Housing Act of 1934, which established the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). The practice was fought first through passage of the Fair Housing Act of 1968 (which prevents redlining when the criteria for redlining are based on race, religion, gender, familial status, disability, or ethnic origin), and later through the Community Reinvestment Act of 1977, which requires banks to apply the same lending criteria in all communities.[122] Although redlining is illegal some argue that it continues to exist in other forms.
[edit] Contemporary issues

Black-White segregation is declining fairly consistently for most metropolitan areas and cities. Despite these pervasive patterns, many changes for individual areas are small.[123] Thirty years after the civil rights era, the United States remains a residentially segregated society in which Blacks and Whites inhabit different neighborhoods of vastly different quality.[124][125]

Some researchers suggest that racial segregation may lead to disparities in health and mortality. Thomas LaVeist (1989; 1993) tested the hypothesis that segregation would aid in explaining race differences in infant mortality rates across cities. Analyzing 176 large and midsized cities, LaVeist found support for the hypothesis. Since LaVeist's studies, segregation has received increased attention as a determinant of race disparities in mortality.[126] Studies have shown that mortality rates for male and female African Americans are lower in areas with lower levels of residential segregation. Mortality for male and female Whites was not associated in either direction with residential segregation.[127]

Researchers Sharon A. Jackson, Roger T. Anderson, Norman J. Johnson and Paul D. Sorlie found that, after adjustment for family income, mortality risk increased with increasing minority residential segregation among Blacks aged 25 to 44 years and non-Blacks aged 45 to 64 years. In most age/race/gender groups, the highest and lowest mortality risks occurred in the highest and lowest categories of residential segregation, respectively. These results suggest that minority residential segregation may influence mortality risk and underscore the traditional emphasis on the social underpinnings of disease and death.[128] Rates of heart disease among African Americans are associated with the segregation patterns in the neighborhoods where they live (Fang et al. 1998). Stephanie A. Bond Huie writes that neighborhoods affect health and mortality outcomes primarily in an indirect fashion through environmental factors such as smoking, diet, exercise, stress, and access to health insurance and medical providers.[129] Moreover, segregation strongly influences premature mortality in the US.[130]
[edit] Laws regarding race
Main article: Race legislation in the United States
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[edit] Court cases regarding race
[edit] Institutional racism

Institutional racism is the theory that aspects of the structure, pervasive attitudes, and established institutions of society disadvantage some racial groups, although not by an overtly discriminatory mechanism.[131] There are several factors that play into institutional racism, including but not limited to: accumulated wealth/benefits from racial groups that have benefited from past discrimination, educational and occupational disadvantages faced by non-native English speakers in the United States, ingrained stereotypical images that still remain in the society (e.g. black men are likely to be criminals).[132]
[edit] Immigration

Access to United States citizenship was restricted by race, beginning with the Naturalization Act of 1790 which refused naturalization to "non-whites." Many in the modern United States forget the institutionalized prejudice against white followers of Roman Catholicism who immigrated from countries such as Ireland, Germany, Italy and France.[133] Other efforts include the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act and the 1924 National Origins Act.[134][135] The Immigration Act of 1924 was aimed at further restricting the Southern and Eastern Europeans who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s. While officially prohibited, U.S. officials continue to differentially apply laws on illegal immigration depending on national origin (essentially declining to enforce immigration laws against citizens of rich countries who overstay their visas) and personal economy (differentially awarding visas to foreign nationals based on bank accounts, properties and so on).
[edit] Wealth creation

Massive racial differentials in account of wealth remain in the United States: between whites and African Americans, the gap is a factor of ten.[136] An analyst of the phenomenon, Thomas Shapiro, professor of law and social policy at Brandeis University argues, “The wealth gap is not just a story of merit and achievement, it’s also a story of the historical legacy of race in the United States.”[137] Differentials applied to the Social Security Act (which excluded agricultural workers, a sector that then included most black workers), rewards to military officers, and the educational benefits offered returning soldiers after World War II. Pre-existing disparities in wealth are exacerbated by tax policies that reward investment over waged income, subsidize mortgages, and subsidize private sector developers.[138] However, according to the US Census, the highest percentage of citizens in America living below the poverty line are white Americans, and not African Americans.[139]
[edit] Impact on health
See also: Race and health

In the US racial differences in health and quality of life often persist even at equivalent socioeconomics levels. Individual and institutional discrimination, along with the stigma of inferiority, can adversely affect health. Residence in poor neighborhoods, racial bias in medical care, the stress of experiences of discrimination and the acceptance of the societal stigma of inferiority can have deleterious consequences for health.[140] Using The Schedule of Racist Events (SRE), an 18-item self-report inventory that assesses the frequency of racist discrimination. Hope Landrine and Elizabeth A. Klonoff found that racist discrimination is rampant in the lives of African Americans and is strongly related to psychiatric symptoms.[141] A study on racist events in the lives of African American women found that lifetime experiences of racism were positively related to lifetime history of both physical disease and frequency of recent common colds. These relationships were largely unaccounted for by other variables. Demographic variables such as income and education were not related to experiences of racism. The results suggest that racism can be detrimental to African American's well being.[142] The physiological stress caused by racism has been documented in studies by Claude Steele, Joshua Aronson, and Steven Spencer on what they term "stereotype threat."[143] Kennedy et al. found that both measures of collective disrespect were strongly correlated with black mortality (r = 0.53 to 0.56), as well as with white mortality (r = 0.48 to 0.54). These data suggest that racism, measured as an ecologic characteristic, is associated with higher mortality in both blacks and whites.[144]
[edit] Health care inequality
See also: Race and health

They are major racial differences in access to health care and in the quality of health care provided. A study published in the American Journal of Public Health estimated that: "over 886,000 deaths could have been prevented from 1991 to 2000 if African Americans had received the same care as whites." The key differences they cited were lack of insurance, inadequate insurance, poor service, and reluctance to seek care.[145] A history of government-sponsored experimentation, such as the notorious Tuskegee Syphilis Study has left a legacy of African American distrust of the medical system.[146]

Inequalities in health care may also reflect a systemic bias in the way medical procedures and treatments are prescribed for different ethnic groups. Raj Bhopal writes that the history of racism in science and medicine shows that people and institutions behave according to the ethos of their times and warns of dangers to avoid in the future.[147] Nancy Krieger contended that much modern research supported the assumptions needed to justify racism. Racism she writes underlies unexplained inequities in health care, including treatment for heart disease,[148] renal failure,[149] bladder cancer,[150] and pneumonia.[151] Raj Bhopal writes that these inequalities have been documented in numerous studies. The consistent and repeated findings that black Americans receive less health care than white Americans—particularly where this involves expensive new technology.[152]
[edit] Political issues
[edit] Affirmative action
Main article: Affirmative action in the United States

Affirmative action is a policy or program intended to promote access to education or employment for minority groups and women. Motivation for affirmative action policies is to redress the effects of past discrimination and to encourage public institutions such as universities, hospitals, and police forces to be more representative of the population.

Affirmative action programs may include targeted recruitment efforts, preferential treatment given to applicants from historically disadvantaged groups, and in some cases the use of quotas. Most American universities and some employers practice affirmative action.[citation needed]

Some opponents of affirmative action view the greater access by women and minority groups to be at the expense of groups considered dominant (typically white men). In their view, these policies demonstrate an overt preference for applicants from particular backgrounds over better-qualified (or equally-qualified) candidates from other backgrounds. Some opponents of affirmative action believe the only consideration in choosing between applicants should be merit. Some also criticize affirmative action because they believe it perpetuates racial division instead of minimizing the importance of race in American society.[153]

Supporters of affirmative action believe that the perceived injustice to the dominant group is not supported by facts. They point to statistics that suggest that affirmative action has not resulted in fewer opportunities for white people. For example, white enrollment in universities has increased along with minority enrollment. In 1973, 30% of white high school graduates attended universities; in 1993, after widespread implementation of affirmative action policies, that number had risen to 42%.[154] Some supporters of affirmative action point out that, even in the absence of affirmative action, college admissions rarely are purely merit-based: athletes, musicians, and legacy students (children of alumni) have always been given preferential treatment. For example, Harvard University admits 35-40% of legacy applicants, and a rejected white applicant is more likely to have been displaced by a legacy student than by one who benefited from affirmative action.[citation needed]
[edit] Hate crimes
Main article: Hate crime

Most hate crimes in the United States target victims on the basis of race or ethnicity (for Federal purposes, crimes targeting Hispanics based on that identity are considered based on ethnicity). Leading forms of bias cited in the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program, based on law enforcement agency filings are: anti-black, anti-Jewish, anti-white, anti-homosexual, and anti-Hispanic bias in that order in both 2004 and 2005.[155] There are more hate crimes against whites than against Hispanics, Asians, American Indians, and multiracial groups - a statistically expected trend given that there far more whites than other ethnic groups put together. By contrast, the National Criminal Victimization Survey, finds that per capita rates of hate crime victimization varied little by race or ethnicity, and the differences are not statistically significant.[156]

The New Century Foundation, a white nationalist organization founded by Jared Taylor, argues that blacks are more likely than whites to commit hate crimes, and that FBI figures inflate the number of hate crimes committed by whites by counting Hispanics as "white".[157] Other analysts are sharply critical of the NCF's findings, referring to the criminological mainstream view that "Racial and ethnic data must be treated with caution. Existing research on crime has generally shown that racial or ethnic identity is not predictive of criminal behavior with data which has been controlled for social and economic factors."[158] NCF's methodology and statistics are further sharply criticized as flawed and deceptive by anti-racist activists Tim Wise and the Southern Poverty Law Center.[159][160]

The first post-Jim Crow era hate crime to make sensational media attention was the beating death of Vincent Chin, an Asian American of Chinese descent in 1982. He was attacked by a mob of white assailants who were recently laid off from a Detroit area auto factory job and blamed the Japanese for their individual unemployment. Chin was not of Japanese descent, but the assailants testified at the criminal court case that he "looked like a Jap", an ethnic slur used to describe Japanese and other Asians, and that they were angry enough to beat him to death. They served no jail time and were acquitted of all charges.[citation needed]
[edit] Current hate groups
Main article: Hate groups

Supremacist, separatist, racist, and hate groups still operate in the United States. The New Black Panther Party, Nation of Islam, United Nuwaubian Nation of Moors, Ku Klux Klan, the National Alliance, National Socialist Movement (United States), Aryan Nations, League of the South, Voz de Aztlán, Nation of Yahweh, the Jewish Defense League, and the White Order of Thule are among the institutions most commonly identified in this way.
[edit] Anti-racism
Main article: Anti-racism

Organizations known for anti-racist and civil rights activism are the NAACP (National Association of the Advancement of Colored People), the SPLC (Southern Poverty Law Center), the ADL (Anti-Defamation League), the Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund, the National Council of La Raza representing Latinos, the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee , the National Italian American Foundation, the Japan Society of America , and the National Congress of American Indians among others.[citation needed]